Psychological characteristics of children with high and low levels of loneliness
Keywords:
children; loneliness; personality; self-esteem
Abstract
The article focuses on the issue of loneliness in children. Children with high and low levels of loneliness were compared on a range of measures pertaining to personality (Cattell’s CPQ), self-esteem (Rosenberg’s SES and Coopersmith’s SEI), assertiveness (Michelson and Wood’s CABS) and clinical variables crucial from the point of view of normal interpersonal relationships: depression (Birleson’s DSRS and Kovac’s CDI) and pessimism (Kazdin’s HPLS). Additional analyses were carried out to identify the variables determining loneliness o school-age children. The study involved N = 90 children (41 girls and 49 boys) aged 11-13. The results showed that children with high loneliness are more closed, emotionally sensitive, shy, submissive and reflexive, as compared to non-lonely children. They were found to have increased emotional tension, tendency for self- -blame and low self-esteem. They also showed lowered mood and pessimistic attitude towards future. Low self-esteem, pessimism and shyness were found to be the main factors accounting for loneliness in children, although in this respect gender-specific differences were also found.
The results were discussed in terms of traits theory and social-cognitive theory. Practical implications of this study point to the need for development of intervention programmes designed for children with high loneliness. Such programmes should address action towards enhancement of self- -esteem and development of social skills.
References
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Parker, J. G., Asher, S. R. (1993). Friendship and friendship quality in middle childhood: Links with peer group acceptance and feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction. Developmental Psychology, 29, 611-621.
Peplau, L. A., Perlman, D. (1982). Perspectives on loneliness. W: L. A. Peplau, D. Perlman (red.), Loneliness: A source book of current theory, research and therapy (s. 135-151). New York: Wiley.
Porter, R. B., Cattell, R. B. (1960). Handbook for the Children’s Personality Questionnaire. Champain, Illinois: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing.
Qualter, P., Munn, P. (2002). The separateness of social and emotional loneliness in childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 233-244.
Rembowski, J. (1992). Samotność. Gdańsk: Uniwersytet Gdański.
Riggio, R. E., Watring, K. P., Trockmorton, B. (1993). Social skills, social support, and psychological adjustment. Personality and Individual Differences, 15, 275-280.
Saklofske, D. H., Yackulic, R. A. (1989). Personality predictors of loneliness. Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 467-472.
Shaver, P. R., Brennan, K. A. (1991). Measures of depression and loneliness. W: J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, L. S. Wrightsman (red.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. Vol. 1: Of measures of social psychological attitudes (s. 195-289). New York: Academic Press.
Stokes, J. P. (1985). The relation of social network and individual difference variables to loneliness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 981-990.
Storch, E. A., Masia-Warner, C. (2004). The relationship of peer victimization to social anxiety and loneliness in adolescent females. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 351-362.
Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton.
Renshaw, P. D., Brown, P. J. (1993). Loneliness in middle childhood: Concurrent and longitudinal predictors. Child Development, 64, 1271-1284.
Riggio, R. E., Trockmorton, B., DePaola, S. (1990). Social skills and self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 11, 799-804.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. New York: Princeton University Press.
Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., Cutrona, C. E. (1980). The revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 472-480.
Weiss, R. S. (1973). Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Wiśniowiecka, M., Szewczyk, L. (2001). Poczucie osamotnienia u dzieci z otyłością. W: L. Szewczyk, A. Kulik (red.), Wybrane zagadnienia z psychologii klinicznej i osobowości. Psychosomatyka (s. 27-38). Lublin: Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL.
Anastazi, A., Urbina, S. (1999). Testy psychologiczne. Warszawa: Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych PTP.
Asher, S. R., Hopmeyer, A. (1997). Loneliness in childhood. W: G. B. Bear, K. M. Minke, A. Thomas (red.), Children’s needs II: Development, problems and alternatives (s. 279-292). Bethesda, Maryland: National Association of School Psychologists.
Asher, S. R., Hymel, S., Renshaw, P. D. (1984). Loneliness in children. Child Development, 55, 1456-1464.
Asher, S. R., Paquette, J. A. (2003). Loneliness and peer relations in childhood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 75-78.
Asher, S. R., Parkhurst, J. T., Hymel, S., Williams, G. A. (1990). Peer rejection and loneliness in childhood. W: S. R. Asher, J. J. Coie (red.), Peer rejection in childhood (s. 253-273). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1-26.
Bijstra, J. O., Bosma, H. A., Jackson, S. (1994). The relationship between social skills and psycho-social functioning in early adolescence. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 767-776.
Birleson P. (1981). The validity of depressive disorder in childhood and the development of a Self-Rating Scale: A research project. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 22, 73-78.
Bowlby, J. (1977). The making and breaking of affectional bonds: I. Aetiology and psychopathology in the lihgt of attachment theory. British Journal of Psychiatry, 130, 201-210.
Cassidy, J., Asher, S. R. (1992). Loneliness and peer relations in young children. Child Development, 63, 350-365.
Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Cheng, H., Furnham, A. (2002). Personality, peer relations, and self-confidence as predictors of happiness and loneliness. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 327-339.
Jones, W. H., Hobbs, S. A., Hockenbury, D. (1982). Loneliness and social skills deficits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 682-689.
DiTommasso, E., Spinner, B. (1997). Social and emotional loneliness: A reexamination of Weiss’ typology of loneliness. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 417-427.
Dołęga, Z. (1995). Samotność dorastających w relacjach społecznych. W: I. Heszen-Niejodek (red.), Doświadczenie kryzysu – szansa rozwoju czy ryzyko zaburzeń? (s. 43-62). Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.
Haines, D. A., Scalise, J. J., Ginter, E. J. (1993). Relationships of loneliness and its affective elements to self-esteem. Psychological Reports, 73, 476-482.
Hoglund, C. L., Collison, B. B. (1989). Loneliness and irrational beliefs among college students. Journal of College Student Development, 30, 53-58.
Inderbitzen-Pisaruk, H., Clark, M. L., Solano, C. H. (1992). Correlates of loneliness in midadolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21, 151-167.
Kazdin, A. E., French, N. H., Unis, A. S., Esveldt-Dawson, K., Sherick, R. B. (1983). Hopelessness, depression, and suicidal intent among psychiatrically disturbed inpatient children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 504-510.
Kostrzewski, J. (1964). Metody badania osobowości Cattella. Roczniki Filozoficzne, 12, 4, 59-79.
Kovacs, M. (1980/1981). Rating scales to assess depression in school aged children. Acta Paedopsychiatrica, 46, 305-315.
Marcoen, A., Brumagne, M. (1985). Loneliness among children and young adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 3, 1025-1031.
McWhirter, B. T. (1997). Loneliness, learned resourcefulness, and self-esteem in college students. Journal of Counseling and Development, 75, 460-469.
Michelson, L., Wood, R. (1982). Development and psychometric properties of the Children’s Assertive Behavior Scale. Journal of Behavioral Assessment, 4, 3-13.
Nurmi, J.-E., Toivonen, S., Salmela-Aro, K., Eronen, S. (1997). Social strategies and loneliness. The Journal and Social Psychology, 137, 764-777.
Oleś, M. (1995). Pomiar depresji u dzieci: przegląd metod. Roczniki Filozoficzne, 43, 4, 147-170.
Oleś, M. (1996). Pomiar pesymizmu u dzieci; skala HPLS A. E. Kazdina. W: A. Januszewski, P. Oleś, W. Otrębski (red.), Studia z psychologii w KUL (t. 8, s. 287-298). Lublin: Redakcja Wydawnictw KUL.
Oleś, M. (1998). Asertywność u dzieci w okresie wczesnej adolescencji. Lublin: Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL.
Oleś, M. (2005). Pomiar poczucia osamotnienia u dzieci – Skala Osamotnienia dla Dzieci (Children’s Loneliness Scale, LSC) S. R. Ashera, S. Hymel i P. D. Renshawa. W: M. Oleś (red.), Wybrane zagadnienia z psychologii klinicznej i osobowości. Metody diagnostyczne w badaniach dzieci i młodzieży (s. 63-79). Lublin: Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL.
Oleś, M., Steuden, S., Klonowski, P., Chmielnicka-Kuter, E., Gajda, T., Puchalska-Wasyl, M., Sobol-Kwapińska, M. (2002). Metody badania jakości życia i psychospołecznego funkcjonowania chorych z zaburzeniami widzenia. W: P. Oleś, S. Steuden, J. Toczołowski (red.), Jak świata mniej widzę. Zaburzenia widzenia a jakość życia (s. 51-68). Lublin: Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL.
Parker, J. G., Asher, S. R. (1993). Friendship and friendship quality in middle childhood: Links with peer group acceptance and feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction. Developmental Psychology, 29, 611-621.
Peplau, L. A., Perlman, D. (1982). Perspectives on loneliness. W: L. A. Peplau, D. Perlman (red.), Loneliness: A source book of current theory, research and therapy (s. 135-151). New York: Wiley.
Porter, R. B., Cattell, R. B. (1960). Handbook for the Children’s Personality Questionnaire. Champain, Illinois: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing.
Qualter, P., Munn, P. (2002). The separateness of social and emotional loneliness in childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 233-244.
Rembowski, J. (1992). Samotność. Gdańsk: Uniwersytet Gdański.
Riggio, R. E., Watring, K. P., Trockmorton, B. (1993). Social skills, social support, and psychological adjustment. Personality and Individual Differences, 15, 275-280.
Saklofske, D. H., Yackulic, R. A. (1989). Personality predictors of loneliness. Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 467-472.
Shaver, P. R., Brennan, K. A. (1991). Measures of depression and loneliness. W: J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, L. S. Wrightsman (red.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. Vol. 1: Of measures of social psychological attitudes (s. 195-289). New York: Academic Press.
Stokes, J. P. (1985). The relation of social network and individual difference variables to loneliness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 981-990.
Storch, E. A., Masia-Warner, C. (2004). The relationship of peer victimization to social anxiety and loneliness in adolescent females. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 351-362.
Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton.
Renshaw, P. D., Brown, P. J. (1993). Loneliness in middle childhood: Concurrent and longitudinal predictors. Child Development, 64, 1271-1284.
Riggio, R. E., Trockmorton, B., DePaola, S. (1990). Social skills and self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 11, 799-804.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. New York: Princeton University Press.
Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., Cutrona, C. E. (1980). The revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 472-480.
Weiss, R. S. (1973). Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Wiśniowiecka, M., Szewczyk, L. (2001). Poczucie osamotnienia u dzieci z otyłością. W: L. Szewczyk, A. Kulik (red.), Wybrane zagadnienia z psychologii klinicznej i osobowości. Psychosomatyka (s. 27-38). Lublin: Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL.
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