Personality traits and two dimensions of forgivingness
Abstrakt
Although personality characteristics have been conceptualized as influencing individuals’ propensity to forgive, the findings in this field are inconsistent and require further studies. The five-factor model has been explored most frequently, and personality traits, especially agreeableness and neuroticism, have been found to be related to forgiveness. This study investigated the relationships between five personality domains and different aspects of dispositional forgiveness, termed forgivingness, namely positive and negative dimensions of forgivingness of oneself, other people, and situations beyond anyone’s control. Data were collected from 153 adults aged from 20 to 55 years. The participants completed the NEO-FFI Personality Inventory and the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS). Correlation and regression analyses were performed. The results demonstrated that personality traits explained variance in most HFS subscales. Neuroticism, agreeableness and extraversion were significant predictors of different dimensions of forgivingness. Neuroticism negatively predicted the overall level of forgivingness and overcoming unforgiveness of self, others, and situations. Extraversion along with neuroticism also negatively predicted total forgivingness as well as overcoming unforgiveness in general and towards others. Agreeableness was significantly related to positive forgivingness in general and towards others.
Bibliografia
Abid, M., Shafiq, S., Naz, I., & Riaz, M. (2015).Relationship between personality factors and level of forgiveness among college students. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 7, 149-154.
Allemand, M., Zimprich, D., & Hendriks, A. A. (2008). Age differences in five personality domains across the life span. Developmental Psychology, 44, 758-770. DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.758
American Psychological Association (2006). Forgiveness – A sampling of research results. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/international/resources/publications/forgiveness.pdf
Balliet, D. (2010). Conscientiousness and forgivingness: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 259-263. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2009.10.021
Berry, J. W., Worthington, E. L., Jr., O’Connor, L. E., Parrott, L., & Wade, N. G. (2005). Forgivingness, vengeful rumination, and affective traits. Journal of Personality, 73, 183-226. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00308.x
Berry, J. W., Worthington, E. L. Jr., Parrott III, L., O’Connor, L. E., & Wade, N. G. (2001). Dispositional forgivingness: Development and construct validity of the Transgression Narrative Test of Forgivingness (TNTF). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 1277-1290. DOI: 10.1177/01461672012710004
Brose, L. A., Rye, M. S., Lutz-Zois, C., & Ross, S. R. (2005). Forgiveness and personality traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 35-46. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2004.11.001
Brown, R. P. (2003). Measuring individual differences in the tendency to forgive: Construct validity and links with depression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 759-771. DOI: 10.1177/0146167203029006008
Charzyńska, E., & Heszen, I. (2013). Zdolność do wybaczania i jej pomiar za pomocą polskiej adaptacji Skali Wybaczania L. L. Toussainta, D. R. Williamsa, M. A. Musicka i S. A. Everson. [The capacity to forgive and its measurement with the Polish adaptation of The Forgiveness Scale by L. L. Toussaint, D. R. Williams, M. A. Musick, and S. A. Everson]. Przegląd Psychologiczny, 56, 423-446.
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1980). Influence of extraversion and neuroticism on subjective well-being: Happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 668-678. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.38.4.668
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). Professional manual. Odessa, FL, US: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Costa, P. T. Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1995). Domains and facets: Hierarchical personality assessment using the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64, 21-50. DOI: 10.1207/s15327752jpa6401_2
Eaton, J., Struthers, C. W., & Santelli, A. G. (2006). Dispositional and state forgiveness: The role of self-esteem, need for structure, and narcissism. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 371-380. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2006.02.005
Enright, R. D. (1996). Counseling within the forgiveness triad: On forgiving, receiving forgiveness, and self‐forgiveness. Counseling and Values, 40, 107-126.
Exline, J. J., Worthington, E. L., Hill, P., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Forgiveness and justice: A research agenda for social and personality psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7, 337-348. DOI: 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0704_06
Fehr, R., Gelfand, M. J., & Nag, M. (2010). The road to forgiveness: A meta-analytic synthesis of its situational and dispositional correlates. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 894-914. DOI: 10.1037/a0019993
Fincham, F. D., Beach, S. R., & Davila, J. (2004). Forgiveness and conflict resolution in marriage. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 72-81. DOI: 10.1037/0893-3200.18.1.72
Gruszecka, E. (2012). Rodzaj relacji interpersonalnej a zachowanie sprawcy krzywdy po jej wyrządzeniu i ustosunkowanie do ofiary. [The type of interpersonal relationship as influencing perpetrator’s behavior after having caused harm and their disposition towards the victim]. Roczniki Psychologiczne, 15, 55-86.
Hafnidar, L. C. (2013). The relationship among five factor model of personality, spirituality and forgiveness. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 3, 167-170.
Hill, P. L., Allemand, M., & Burrow, A. L. (2010). Identity development and forgivingness: Tests of basic relations and mediational pathways. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 497-501. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.011
Kaleta, K., Mróz, J., & Guzewicz, M. (2016). Polska adaptacja Skali Przebaczenia – Heartland Forgiveness Scale [Polish adaptation of the Heartland Forgiveness Scale]. Przegląd Psychologiczny, 59, 387-402.
Kamat, V. I., Jones, W. H., & Row, K. L. (2006). Assessing forgiveness as a dimension of personality. Individual Differences Research, 4(5), 322-330.
Koutsos, P., Wertheim, E. H., & Kornblum, J. (2008). Paths to interpersonal forgiveness: The roles of personality, disposition to forgive and contextual factors in predicting forgiveness following a specific offence. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 337-348. DOI:10.1016/j.paid.2007.08.011
Lawler-Row, K. A., Karremans, J. C., Scott, C., Edlis-Matityahou, M., & Edwards, L. (2008). Forgiveness, physiological reactivity and health: The role of anger. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 68, 51-58. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.01.001
Linley, P. A., Joseph, S., Harrington, S., & Wood, A. M. (2006). Positive psychology: Past, present, and (possible) future. Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 3-16. DOI: 10.1080/17439760500372796
Maltby, J., Day, L., & Barber, L. (2004). Forgiveness and mental health variables: Interpreting the relationship using an adaptational-continuum model of personality and coping. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 1629-1641. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2004.02.017
Maltby, J., Wood, A. M., Day, L., Kon, T. W., Colley, A., & Linley, P. A. (2008). Personality predictors of levels of forgiveness two and a half years after the transgression. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1088-1094. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2007.12.008
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. Jr. (1991). Adding Liebe und Arbeit: The full five-factor model and well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 227-232. DOI: 10.1177/014616729101700217
McCullough, M. E., Bellah, C. G., Kilpatrick, S. D., & Johnson, J. L. (2001). Vengefulness: Relationships with forgiveness, rumination, well-being, and the Big Five. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 601-610. DOI: 10.1177/0146167201275008
McCullough, M. E., Fincham, F. D., & Tsang, J. (2003). Forgiveness, forbearance, and time: The temporal unfolding of transgression-related interpersonal motivations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 540-557. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.3.540
McCullough, M. E., & Hoyt, W. T. (2002). Transgression-related motivational dispositions: Personality substrates of forgiveness and their links to the Big Five. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1556-1573. DOI: 10.1177/014616702237583
McCullough, M. E., Rachal, K. C., Sandage, S. J., Worthington, E. L. Jr., Brown, S. W., & Hight, T. L. (1998). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships: II. Theoretical elaboration and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1586-1603.
McCullough, M. E., & Witvliet, C. V. (2002). The psychology of forgiveness. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The handbook of positive psychology (pp. 446-455). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Miller, A. J., Worthington, E. L. Jr., & McDaniel, M. A. (2008). Gender and forgiveness: A meta-analytic review and research agenda. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, 843-876. DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.843
Mróz, J., & Kaleta, K. (2017). Cognitive and emotional predictors of episodic and dispositional forgiveness. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 48, 143-153. DOI: 10.1515/ppb-2017-0018
Mullet, E., Neto, F., & Riviere, S. (2005). Personality and its effects on resentment, revenge, forgiveness, and self-forgiveness. In E. L. Worthington (Ed.), Handbook of forgiveness (pp. 159-81). New York, NY, US: Routledge.
Orcutt, H. K., Pickett, S. M., & Pope, E. B. (2008). The relationship of offense-specific to posttraumatic stress symptoms in college students. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 6, 73-91. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1080/10926770801920776
Rey, L., & Extremera, N. (2014). Positive psychological characteristics and interpersonal forgiveness: Identifying the unique contribution of emotional intelligence abilities, Big Five traits, gratitude, and optimism. Personality and Individual Differences, 68, 199-204. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.04.030
Rey, L., & Extremera, N. (2016). Agreeableness and interpersonal forgiveness in young adults: The moderating role of gender. Terapia Psicologica, 34, 103-110.
Roberts, R. C. (1995). Forgivingness. American Philosophical Quarterly, 32, 289-306.
Ross, S. R., Kendall, A. C., Matters, K. G., Wrobel, T. A., & Rye, M. S. (2004). A personological examination of self-and other-forgiveness in the five-factor model. Journal of Personality Assessment, 82, 207-214. DOI: 10.1207/s15327752jpa8202_8
Rye, M. S., Loiacono, D. M., Folck, C. D., Olszewski, B. T., Heim, T. A, & Madia, B. P. (2001). Evaluation of the psychometric properties of two forgiveness scales. Current Psychology, 20, 260-278. DOI: 10.1007/s12144-001-1011-6
Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5
Sells, J. N., & Hargrave, T. D. (1998). Forgiveness: A review of the theoretical and empirical literature. Journal of Family Therapy, 20, 21-36.
Subkoviak, M. J., Enright, R. D., Wu, C. R., Gassin, E. A., Freedman, S., Olson, L. M., & Sarinopoulos, I. (1995). Measuring interpersonal forgiveness in late adolescence and middle adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 18, 641. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.1995.1045
Thompson, L. Y., & Synder, C. R. (2003). Measuring forgiveness. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Positive psychological assessment: A handbook of models and measures (pp. 301-312). Washington: APA.
Thompson, L. Y., Snyder, C. R., Hoffman, L., Michael S. T., Rasmussen, H. N., Billings, L. S., Heinze, L., Neufeld, J. E., Shorey, H. S., Roberts, J. C., & Roberts, D. E. (2005). Dispositional forgiveness of self, others, and situations. Journal of Personality, 73, 313-359. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00311.x
Toussaint, L. L., Owen, A. D., & Cheadle, A. (2012). Forgive to live: Forgiveness, health, and longevity. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 35, 375-386. DOI: 10.1007/s10865-011-9362-4
Toussaint, L. L., Williams, D. R., Musick, M. A., & Everson, S. A. (2001). Forgiveness and health: Age differences in a US probability sample. Journal of Adult Development, 8, 249-257. DOI: 10.1023/A:1011394629736
Wade, N. G., Hoyt, W. T., Kidwell, J. E. M., & Worthington, E. L. Jr. (2014). Efficacy of psychotherapeutic interventions to promote forgiveness: A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82, 154-170. DOI: 10.1037/a0035268
Wade, N. G., & Worthington E. L., Jr (2003). Overcoming interpersonal offenses: Is forgiveness the only way to deal with unforgiveness?. Journal of Counseling & Development, 81, 343-353. DOI: 10.1002/j.1556-6678.2003.tb00261.x
Walker, D. F., & Gorsuch, R. L. (2002). Forgiveness within the Big Five personality model. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 1127-1137. DOI: 10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00185-9
Wohl, M. J., DeShea, L., & Wahkinney, R. L. (2008). Looking within: Measuring state self-forgiveness and its relationship to psychological well-being. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement, 40. DOI: 10.1037/0008-400x.40.1.1.1
Worthington, E. L. (1998). The pyramid model of forgiveness: Some interdisciplinary speculations about unforgiveness and the promotion of forgiveness. In E. L. Worthington (Ed.), Dimensions of forgiveness: Psychological research and theological perspectives (pp. 107-137). Philadelphia, PA, US: Templeton Press.
Worthington, E. L., & Wade, N. G. (1999). The psychology of unforgiveness and forgiveness and implications for clinical practice. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 18, 385-418. DOI: 10.1521/jscp.1999.18.4.385
Worthington, E. L., Witvliet, C. V. O., Pietrini, P., & Miller, A. J. (2007). Forgiveness, health, and well-being: A review of evidence for emotional versus decisional forgiveness, dispositional forgivingness, and reduced unforgiveness. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30, 291-302. DOI:10.1007/s10865-007-9105-8
Zawadzki, B., Strelau, J., Szczepaniak, P., & Śliwińska, M. (1998). Inwentarz osobowości NEO-FFI Costy i McCrae. Adaptacja polska. Podręcznik [NEO-FFI Personality Inventory by Costa and McCrae. Polish adaptation. A manual]. Warsaw, Poland: Psychological Test Laboratory of the Polish Psychological Association.
Allemand, M., Zimprich, D., & Hendriks, A. A. (2008). Age differences in five personality domains across the life span. Developmental Psychology, 44, 758-770. DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.758
American Psychological Association (2006). Forgiveness – A sampling of research results. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/international/resources/publications/forgiveness.pdf
Balliet, D. (2010). Conscientiousness and forgivingness: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 259-263. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2009.10.021
Berry, J. W., Worthington, E. L., Jr., O’Connor, L. E., Parrott, L., & Wade, N. G. (2005). Forgivingness, vengeful rumination, and affective traits. Journal of Personality, 73, 183-226. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00308.x
Berry, J. W., Worthington, E. L. Jr., Parrott III, L., O’Connor, L. E., & Wade, N. G. (2001). Dispositional forgivingness: Development and construct validity of the Transgression Narrative Test of Forgivingness (TNTF). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 1277-1290. DOI: 10.1177/01461672012710004
Brose, L. A., Rye, M. S., Lutz-Zois, C., & Ross, S. R. (2005). Forgiveness and personality traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 35-46. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2004.11.001
Brown, R. P. (2003). Measuring individual differences in the tendency to forgive: Construct validity and links with depression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 759-771. DOI: 10.1177/0146167203029006008
Charzyńska, E., & Heszen, I. (2013). Zdolność do wybaczania i jej pomiar za pomocą polskiej adaptacji Skali Wybaczania L. L. Toussainta, D. R. Williamsa, M. A. Musicka i S. A. Everson. [The capacity to forgive and its measurement with the Polish adaptation of The Forgiveness Scale by L. L. Toussaint, D. R. Williams, M. A. Musick, and S. A. Everson]. Przegląd Psychologiczny, 56, 423-446.
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1980). Influence of extraversion and neuroticism on subjective well-being: Happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 668-678. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.38.4.668
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). Professional manual. Odessa, FL, US: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Costa, P. T. Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1995). Domains and facets: Hierarchical personality assessment using the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64, 21-50. DOI: 10.1207/s15327752jpa6401_2
Eaton, J., Struthers, C. W., & Santelli, A. G. (2006). Dispositional and state forgiveness: The role of self-esteem, need for structure, and narcissism. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 371-380. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2006.02.005
Enright, R. D. (1996). Counseling within the forgiveness triad: On forgiving, receiving forgiveness, and self‐forgiveness. Counseling and Values, 40, 107-126.
Exline, J. J., Worthington, E. L., Hill, P., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Forgiveness and justice: A research agenda for social and personality psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7, 337-348. DOI: 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0704_06
Fehr, R., Gelfand, M. J., & Nag, M. (2010). The road to forgiveness: A meta-analytic synthesis of its situational and dispositional correlates. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 894-914. DOI: 10.1037/a0019993
Fincham, F. D., Beach, S. R., & Davila, J. (2004). Forgiveness and conflict resolution in marriage. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 72-81. DOI: 10.1037/0893-3200.18.1.72
Gruszecka, E. (2012). Rodzaj relacji interpersonalnej a zachowanie sprawcy krzywdy po jej wyrządzeniu i ustosunkowanie do ofiary. [The type of interpersonal relationship as influencing perpetrator’s behavior after having caused harm and their disposition towards the victim]. Roczniki Psychologiczne, 15, 55-86.
Hafnidar, L. C. (2013). The relationship among five factor model of personality, spirituality and forgiveness. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 3, 167-170.
Hill, P. L., Allemand, M., & Burrow, A. L. (2010). Identity development and forgivingness: Tests of basic relations and mediational pathways. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 497-501. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.011
Kaleta, K., Mróz, J., & Guzewicz, M. (2016). Polska adaptacja Skali Przebaczenia – Heartland Forgiveness Scale [Polish adaptation of the Heartland Forgiveness Scale]. Przegląd Psychologiczny, 59, 387-402.
Kamat, V. I., Jones, W. H., & Row, K. L. (2006). Assessing forgiveness as a dimension of personality. Individual Differences Research, 4(5), 322-330.
Koutsos, P., Wertheim, E. H., & Kornblum, J. (2008). Paths to interpersonal forgiveness: The roles of personality, disposition to forgive and contextual factors in predicting forgiveness following a specific offence. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 337-348. DOI:10.1016/j.paid.2007.08.011
Lawler-Row, K. A., Karremans, J. C., Scott, C., Edlis-Matityahou, M., & Edwards, L. (2008). Forgiveness, physiological reactivity and health: The role of anger. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 68, 51-58. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.01.001
Linley, P. A., Joseph, S., Harrington, S., & Wood, A. M. (2006). Positive psychology: Past, present, and (possible) future. Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 3-16. DOI: 10.1080/17439760500372796
Maltby, J., Day, L., & Barber, L. (2004). Forgiveness and mental health variables: Interpreting the relationship using an adaptational-continuum model of personality and coping. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 1629-1641. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2004.02.017
Maltby, J., Wood, A. M., Day, L., Kon, T. W., Colley, A., & Linley, P. A. (2008). Personality predictors of levels of forgiveness two and a half years after the transgression. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1088-1094. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2007.12.008
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. Jr. (1991). Adding Liebe und Arbeit: The full five-factor model and well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 227-232. DOI: 10.1177/014616729101700217
McCullough, M. E., Bellah, C. G., Kilpatrick, S. D., & Johnson, J. L. (2001). Vengefulness: Relationships with forgiveness, rumination, well-being, and the Big Five. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 601-610. DOI: 10.1177/0146167201275008
McCullough, M. E., Fincham, F. D., & Tsang, J. (2003). Forgiveness, forbearance, and time: The temporal unfolding of transgression-related interpersonal motivations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 540-557. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.3.540
McCullough, M. E., & Hoyt, W. T. (2002). Transgression-related motivational dispositions: Personality substrates of forgiveness and their links to the Big Five. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1556-1573. DOI: 10.1177/014616702237583
McCullough, M. E., Rachal, K. C., Sandage, S. J., Worthington, E. L. Jr., Brown, S. W., & Hight, T. L. (1998). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships: II. Theoretical elaboration and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1586-1603.
McCullough, M. E., & Witvliet, C. V. (2002). The psychology of forgiveness. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The handbook of positive psychology (pp. 446-455). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Miller, A. J., Worthington, E. L. Jr., & McDaniel, M. A. (2008). Gender and forgiveness: A meta-analytic review and research agenda. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, 843-876. DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.843
Mróz, J., & Kaleta, K. (2017). Cognitive and emotional predictors of episodic and dispositional forgiveness. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 48, 143-153. DOI: 10.1515/ppb-2017-0018
Mullet, E., Neto, F., & Riviere, S. (2005). Personality and its effects on resentment, revenge, forgiveness, and self-forgiveness. In E. L. Worthington (Ed.), Handbook of forgiveness (pp. 159-81). New York, NY, US: Routledge.
Orcutt, H. K., Pickett, S. M., & Pope, E. B. (2008). The relationship of offense-specific to posttraumatic stress symptoms in college students. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 6, 73-91. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1080/10926770801920776
Rey, L., & Extremera, N. (2014). Positive psychological characteristics and interpersonal forgiveness: Identifying the unique contribution of emotional intelligence abilities, Big Five traits, gratitude, and optimism. Personality and Individual Differences, 68, 199-204. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.04.030
Rey, L., & Extremera, N. (2016). Agreeableness and interpersonal forgiveness in young adults: The moderating role of gender. Terapia Psicologica, 34, 103-110.
Roberts, R. C. (1995). Forgivingness. American Philosophical Quarterly, 32, 289-306.
Ross, S. R., Kendall, A. C., Matters, K. G., Wrobel, T. A., & Rye, M. S. (2004). A personological examination of self-and other-forgiveness in the five-factor model. Journal of Personality Assessment, 82, 207-214. DOI: 10.1207/s15327752jpa8202_8
Rye, M. S., Loiacono, D. M., Folck, C. D., Olszewski, B. T., Heim, T. A, & Madia, B. P. (2001). Evaluation of the psychometric properties of two forgiveness scales. Current Psychology, 20, 260-278. DOI: 10.1007/s12144-001-1011-6
Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5
Sells, J. N., & Hargrave, T. D. (1998). Forgiveness: A review of the theoretical and empirical literature. Journal of Family Therapy, 20, 21-36.
Subkoviak, M. J., Enright, R. D., Wu, C. R., Gassin, E. A., Freedman, S., Olson, L. M., & Sarinopoulos, I. (1995). Measuring interpersonal forgiveness in late adolescence and middle adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 18, 641. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.1995.1045
Thompson, L. Y., & Synder, C. R. (2003). Measuring forgiveness. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Positive psychological assessment: A handbook of models and measures (pp. 301-312). Washington: APA.
Thompson, L. Y., Snyder, C. R., Hoffman, L., Michael S. T., Rasmussen, H. N., Billings, L. S., Heinze, L., Neufeld, J. E., Shorey, H. S., Roberts, J. C., & Roberts, D. E. (2005). Dispositional forgiveness of self, others, and situations. Journal of Personality, 73, 313-359. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00311.x
Toussaint, L. L., Owen, A. D., & Cheadle, A. (2012). Forgive to live: Forgiveness, health, and longevity. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 35, 375-386. DOI: 10.1007/s10865-011-9362-4
Toussaint, L. L., Williams, D. R., Musick, M. A., & Everson, S. A. (2001). Forgiveness and health: Age differences in a US probability sample. Journal of Adult Development, 8, 249-257. DOI: 10.1023/A:1011394629736
Wade, N. G., Hoyt, W. T., Kidwell, J. E. M., & Worthington, E. L. Jr. (2014). Efficacy of psychotherapeutic interventions to promote forgiveness: A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82, 154-170. DOI: 10.1037/a0035268
Wade, N. G., & Worthington E. L., Jr (2003). Overcoming interpersonal offenses: Is forgiveness the only way to deal with unforgiveness?. Journal of Counseling & Development, 81, 343-353. DOI: 10.1002/j.1556-6678.2003.tb00261.x
Walker, D. F., & Gorsuch, R. L. (2002). Forgiveness within the Big Five personality model. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 1127-1137. DOI: 10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00185-9
Wohl, M. J., DeShea, L., & Wahkinney, R. L. (2008). Looking within: Measuring state self-forgiveness and its relationship to psychological well-being. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement, 40. DOI: 10.1037/0008-400x.40.1.1.1
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