Milczenie i przełamywanie milczenia w organizacji
Słowa kluczowe:
milczenie; głos; organizacja; przełamywanie milczenia
Abstrakt
Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie zjawiska milczenia w organizacji. Milczenie rozumiane jest jako decyzja o niezabieraniu głosu w sytuacji nieprawidłowości mających miejsce w organizacji lub wtedy, gdy można zasugerować korzystne dla organizacji zmiany. Wyróżniono dwa typy milczenia: milczenie jako efekt społecznie podzielanych przekonań oraz milczenie jako taktyka. W artykule poruszane jest także zagadnienie przełamywania milczenia. Postulat przełamywania milczenia jest zgodny z podejściem partycypacyjnym, które przypisuje wartość uczestnictwu pracownika w podejmowaniu decyzji organizacyjnych. Milczenie ogranicza uczestnictwo, wielogłos, indywidualną kreatywność i blokuje zmiany w organizacji.
Bibliografia
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Bar-Tal, D. (2013a). Intractable conflicts: Socio-psychological foundations and dynamics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Beer, M., & Eisenstat, R. E. (2000). The silent killers of strategy implementation and learning. Sloan Management Review, 41, 29-40.
Bochiaro, P., Zimbardo, P. G., & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2012). To defy or not to defy: An experimental study of the dynamics of disobedience and whistle-blowing. Social Influence, 7, 35-50.
Bogart, K., & Stein, N. (1987). Breaking the silence: Sexual harassment in education. Peabody Journal in Education, 64, 146-163.
Botero, I. C., & Van Dyne, L. (2009). Employee voice behavior. Interactive effects of LMX and power distance in the United States and Colombia. Management Communication Quarterly, 23, 84-104.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Cortina, L. M., & Magley, V. J. (2003). Raising voice, risking retaliation: Events following interpersonal mistreatment in the workplace. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 8, 247-265.
Creed, W. E. D. (2003). Voice lessons: Tempered radicalism and the use of voice and silence. Journal of Management Studies, 40, 1503-1536.
Creed, W. E. D., DeJordy, R., & Lok, J. (2010). Being the change: Resolving institutional contradiction through identity work. Academy of Management Journal, 53, 1336-1364.
Creed, W. E. D., Hudson, B. A., Okhuysen, G. A., & Smith-Crowe, K. (2014). Swimming in a sea of shame: Incorporating emotions into explanations of institutional reproduction and change. Academy of Management Review, 39, 275-301.
Çinar, O., Karcioǧlu, F., & Allioǧullari, Z. D. (2013). The relationship between organizational silence and organizational citizenship behavior: A survey study in the province of Erzurum, Turkey. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 99, 314-321.
Detert, J. R., & Edmondson, A. C. (2011). Implicit voice theories: Taken-for-rules of self-censorship at work. Academy of Management Journal, 54, 461-488.
Donaghey, J., Cullinane, N., Dundon, T., & Wilkinson, A. (2011). Re‐conceptualising employee silence: Problems and prognosis. Work, Employment and Society, 25, 51‐67.
Dutton, J. E., Ashford, S. J., O’Neill, R. M., & Lawrence, K. A. (2001). Moves that matter: Issue selling and organizational change. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 716-736.
Echterhoff, G., Kopietz, R., & Higgins, E. T. (2013). Adjusting shared reality: Communicators’ memory changes as their connection with their audience changes. Social Cognition, 31, 162-186.
Fast, N. J., Burris, E. R., & Bartel, C. A. (2014). Managing to stay in the dark: Managerial self- -efficacy, ego defensiveness, and the aversion to employee voice. Academy of Management Journal, 57, 1013-1034.
Fivush, R. (2010). Speaking silence: The social construction of silence in autobiographical and cultural narratives. Memory, 18, 88-98.
Gibson, R., & Singh, J. (2003). Wall of silence: The untold stories of the medical mistakes that kill and injure millions of Americans. Washington, DC: Lifeline Press.
Goffman, E. (2006). Rytuał interakcyjny. Warsaw, PL: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Hayes, A. F., Scheufele, D. A., & Huge, M. E. (2006). Nonparticipation as self-censorship: Publicly observable political activity in a polarized opinion climate. Political Behavior, 28, 259-283.
Hays-Thomas, R. (2003). The last page: Learning by breaking the silence. The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 6, 120-122.
Higgins, E. T. (1992). Achieving “shared reality” in the communication game: A social action that creates meaning. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 11, 107-131.
Higgins, E. T. (1999). “Saying is believing” effects: When sharing reality about something biases knowledge and evaluations. In L. L. Thompson, J. M. Levine, & D. M. Messick (Eds.), Shared cognition in organizations: The management of knowledge (pp. 33-49). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Higgins, E. T., Echterhoff, G., Crespillo, R., & Kopietz, R. (2007). Effects of communication on social knowledge: Sharing reality with individual versus group audiences. Japanese Psychological Research, 49, 89-99.
Hirak, R., Peng, A. C., Carmeli, A., & Schaubroeck, J. M. (2012). Linking leader inclusiveness to work unit performance: The importance of psychological safety and learning from failures. The Leadership Quarterly, 23, 107-117.
Huang, X., Van de Vliert, E., & Van der Vegt, G. (2005). Breaking the silence culture: Stimulation of participation and employee opinion with holding cross‐nationally. Management and Organization Review, 1, 459‐482.
Islam, G., & Zyphur, M. J. (2005). Power, voice and hierarchy: Exploring the antecedents of speaking up in groups. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research and Practice, 9, 93-103.
Jack, D. C. (1991). Silencing the self. New York: Harper Perennial.
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking fast and slow. New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux.
Kahneman, D., & Lovallo, D. (2002). Timid choices and bold forecasts: A cognitive perspective on risk taking. In L. L. Thompson (Ed.), The social psychology of organizational behavior (pp. 63-78). Hove, NY: Psychology Press.
Kassing, J. W. (2002). Speaking up: Identifying employees’ upward dissent strategies. Management Communication Quarterly, 16, 187-209.
Kish-Gephart, J. J., Detert, J. R., Treviño, L. K., & Edmondson, A. C. (2009). Silenced by fear: The nature, sources, and consequences of fear at work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 29, 163-193.
Klammer, J., Skarlicki, D. P., & Barclay, L. (2001). Speaking up in the Canadian military: The role of voice, being heard, and generation in predicting civic virtue. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 34, 122-130.
Knoll, M., & van Dick, R. (2013). Do I hear the whistle…? A first attempt to measure four forms of employee silence and their correlates. Journal of Business Ethics, 113, 349-362.
Lee, F. (1993). Being polite and keeping MUM: How bad news is communicated in organizational hierarchies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23, 1124-1149.
Lee, J. J., & Pinker, S. (2010. Rationales for indirect speech: The theory of the strategic speaker. Psychological Review, 17, 785-807.
LePine, L., & Van Dyne, J. A. (1998). Predicting voice behavior in work groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(6), 853-868.
Maynes, T. D., & Podsakoff, P. M. (2014). Speaking more broadly: An examination of the nature, antecedents, and consequences of an expanded set of employee voice behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99, 87-112.
Meyerson, D., & Scully, M. (1995). Tempered radicalism: The politics of ambivalence and change. Organizational Science, 6, 585-600.
Miceli, M. P., & Near, J. P. (1989). The incidence of wrongdoing, whistle-blowing and retaliation: Results of a naturally-occurring field experiment. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 2, 91-108.
Morrison, E. W. (2011). Employee voice behavior. Integration and directions for future research. The Academy of Management Annals, 5, 373-412.
Morrison, E. W. (2014). Employee voice and silence. The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1, 173-197.
Morrison, E. W., Chen, Y. R., & Salgado, S. R. (2004). Cultural differences in newcomer information seeking: A comparison of the United States and Hong Kong. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53, 1-22.
Morrison, E. W., & Milliken, F. J. (2000). Organizational silence: A barrier to change and development in a pluralistic world. Academy of Management Review, 25, 706-725.
Perlow, L. A., & Repenning, N. P. (2009). The dynamics of silencing conflict. Research in Organizational Behavior, 29, 195-223.
Perlow, L., & Williams, S. (2003). Is silence killing your company? Harvard Business Review, 81, 52-59.
Pinder, C., & Harlos, K. (2001). Employee silence: Quiescence and acquiescence as responses to perceived injustice. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 20, 331-369.
Rothwell, G. R., & Baldwin, J. N. (2007). Ethical climate theory, whistle blowing and the code of silence in police agencies in the state of Georgia. Journal of Business Ethics, 70, 341-361.
Schippers, M. C., Homan, A. C., & Van Knippenberg, D. (2013). To reflect and not to reflect: Prior team performance as a boundary of the effects of the reflexivity on learning and final team performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34, 6-23.
Spencer, L. (1989). Winning through participation. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
Stone, D., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Beyond talk: Creating autonomous motivation through self-determination theory. Journal of General Management, 34, 75-91.
Sutton, R. I. (2010). The mum effect and filtering in organizations: The ‘shoot the messenger’ problem. PsychologyToday.com, June 5th, Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2010/06/some-bosses-live-in-a-fools-pa.
Tahmasebi, F., Sobhanipour, S. M., & Aghaziarati, M. (2013). Burnout: Explaining the role of organizational silence and its influence (case study: selected executive organizations of Qom Province). Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research, 3, 272-282.
Tangirala, S., Kamdar, D., Venkataramani, V., & Parke, M. R. (2013). Doing right versus getting ahead: The effects of duty and achievement orientations on employees’ voice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 1040-1050.
Tangirala, S., & Ramanujam, R. (2008). Employee silence on critical work issues: The cross-level effects of procedural justice climate. Personnel Psychology, 61, 37-68.
Tetlock, P. E. (2002). Social functionalist frameworks for judgment and choice: Intuitive politicians, theologians and prosecutors. Psychological Review, 109, 451-471.
Thurlow, C., & Jaworski, A. (2010). Silence is golden. The ‘anti-communicational’ linguascaping of super-elite mobility. In A. Jaworski & C. Thurlow (Eds.), Semiotic landscapes: Language, image, space (pp. 187-218). London: Continuum.
Timming, A. R., & Johnstone, S. (2015). Employee silence and authoritarian personality: A political psychology of workplace democracy. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 23, 154-171.
Vakola, M., & Bourades, D. (2005). Antecedents and consequences of organizational silence: An empirical investigation. Employee Relations, 27, 441-458.
Van Dyne, L., Ang, S., & Botero, I. C. (2003). Conceptualizing employee silence and employee voice as multidimensional constructs. Journal of Management Studies, 40, 1359-1392.
Adamska, K. (2015). Milczenie w organizacji. Rola uważności społecznej i czynników kontekstowych. Zarządzanie Zasobami Ludzkimi, 1, 115-131.
Bar-Tal, D. (2013a). Intractable conflicts: Socio-psychological foundations and dynamics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bar-Tal, D. (2013b). Initial thoughts about self-censorship as a socio-political-psychological collective phenomenon. Lecture delivered at the 10th Congress of the Polish Association of Social Psychology, Cracow, Poland.
Beer, M., & Eisenstat, R. E. (2000). The silent killers of strategy implementation and learning. Sloan Management Review, 41, 29-40.
Bochiaro, P., Zimbardo, P. G., & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2012). To defy or not to defy: An experimental study of the dynamics of disobedience and whistle-blowing. Social Influence, 7, 35-50.
Bogart, K., & Stein, N. (1987). Breaking the silence: Sexual harassment in education. Peabody Journal in Education, 64, 146-163.
Botero, I. C., & Van Dyne, L. (2009). Employee voice behavior. Interactive effects of LMX and power distance in the United States and Colombia. Management Communication Quarterly, 23, 84-104.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Cortina, L. M., & Magley, V. J. (2003). Raising voice, risking retaliation: Events following interpersonal mistreatment in the workplace. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 8, 247-265.
Creed, W. E. D. (2003). Voice lessons: Tempered radicalism and the use of voice and silence. Journal of Management Studies, 40, 1503-1536.
Creed, W. E. D., DeJordy, R., & Lok, J. (2010). Being the change: Resolving institutional contradiction through identity work. Academy of Management Journal, 53, 1336-1364.
Creed, W. E. D., Hudson, B. A., Okhuysen, G. A., & Smith-Crowe, K. (2014). Swimming in a sea of shame: Incorporating emotions into explanations of institutional reproduction and change. Academy of Management Review, 39, 275-301.
Çinar, O., Karcioǧlu, F., & Allioǧullari, Z. D. (2013). The relationship between organizational silence and organizational citizenship behavior: A survey study in the province of Erzurum, Turkey. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 99, 314-321.
Detert, J. R., & Edmondson, A. C. (2011). Implicit voice theories: Taken-for-rules of self-censorship at work. Academy of Management Journal, 54, 461-488.
Donaghey, J., Cullinane, N., Dundon, T., & Wilkinson, A. (2011). Re‐conceptualising employee silence: Problems and prognosis. Work, Employment and Society, 25, 51‐67.
Dutton, J. E., Ashford, S. J., O’Neill, R. M., & Lawrence, K. A. (2001). Moves that matter: Issue selling and organizational change. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 716-736.
Echterhoff, G., Kopietz, R., & Higgins, E. T. (2013). Adjusting shared reality: Communicators’ memory changes as their connection with their audience changes. Social Cognition, 31, 162-186.
Fast, N. J., Burris, E. R., & Bartel, C. A. (2014). Managing to stay in the dark: Managerial self- -efficacy, ego defensiveness, and the aversion to employee voice. Academy of Management Journal, 57, 1013-1034.
Fivush, R. (2010). Speaking silence: The social construction of silence in autobiographical and cultural narratives. Memory, 18, 88-98.
Gibson, R., & Singh, J. (2003). Wall of silence: The untold stories of the medical mistakes that kill and injure millions of Americans. Washington, DC: Lifeline Press.
Goffman, E. (2006). Rytuał interakcyjny. Warsaw, PL: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Hayes, A. F., Scheufele, D. A., & Huge, M. E. (2006). Nonparticipation as self-censorship: Publicly observable political activity in a polarized opinion climate. Political Behavior, 28, 259-283.
Hays-Thomas, R. (2003). The last page: Learning by breaking the silence. The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 6, 120-122.
Higgins, E. T. (1992). Achieving “shared reality” in the communication game: A social action that creates meaning. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 11, 107-131.
Higgins, E. T. (1999). “Saying is believing” effects: When sharing reality about something biases knowledge and evaluations. In L. L. Thompson, J. M. Levine, & D. M. Messick (Eds.), Shared cognition in organizations: The management of knowledge (pp. 33-49). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Higgins, E. T., Echterhoff, G., Crespillo, R., & Kopietz, R. (2007). Effects of communication on social knowledge: Sharing reality with individual versus group audiences. Japanese Psychological Research, 49, 89-99.
Hirak, R., Peng, A. C., Carmeli, A., & Schaubroeck, J. M. (2012). Linking leader inclusiveness to work unit performance: The importance of psychological safety and learning from failures. The Leadership Quarterly, 23, 107-117.
Huang, X., Van de Vliert, E., & Van der Vegt, G. (2005). Breaking the silence culture: Stimulation of participation and employee opinion with holding cross‐nationally. Management and Organization Review, 1, 459‐482.
Islam, G., & Zyphur, M. J. (2005). Power, voice and hierarchy: Exploring the antecedents of speaking up in groups. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research and Practice, 9, 93-103.
Jack, D. C. (1991). Silencing the self. New York: Harper Perennial.
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking fast and slow. New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux.
Kahneman, D., & Lovallo, D. (2002). Timid choices and bold forecasts: A cognitive perspective on risk taking. In L. L. Thompson (Ed.), The social psychology of organizational behavior (pp. 63-78). Hove, NY: Psychology Press.
Kassing, J. W. (2002). Speaking up: Identifying employees’ upward dissent strategies. Management Communication Quarterly, 16, 187-209.
Kish-Gephart, J. J., Detert, J. R., Treviño, L. K., & Edmondson, A. C. (2009). Silenced by fear: The nature, sources, and consequences of fear at work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 29, 163-193.
Klammer, J., Skarlicki, D. P., & Barclay, L. (2001). Speaking up in the Canadian military: The role of voice, being heard, and generation in predicting civic virtue. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 34, 122-130.
Knoll, M., & van Dick, R. (2013). Do I hear the whistle…? A first attempt to measure four forms of employee silence and their correlates. Journal of Business Ethics, 113, 349-362.
Lee, F. (1993). Being polite and keeping MUM: How bad news is communicated in organizational hierarchies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23, 1124-1149.
Lee, J. J., & Pinker, S. (2010. Rationales for indirect speech: The theory of the strategic speaker. Psychological Review, 17, 785-807.
LePine, L., & Van Dyne, J. A. (1998). Predicting voice behavior in work groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(6), 853-868.
Maynes, T. D., & Podsakoff, P. M. (2014). Speaking more broadly: An examination of the nature, antecedents, and consequences of an expanded set of employee voice behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99, 87-112.
Meyerson, D., & Scully, M. (1995). Tempered radicalism: The politics of ambivalence and change. Organizational Science, 6, 585-600.
Miceli, M. P., & Near, J. P. (1989). The incidence of wrongdoing, whistle-blowing and retaliation: Results of a naturally-occurring field experiment. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 2, 91-108.
Morrison, E. W. (2011). Employee voice behavior. Integration and directions for future research. The Academy of Management Annals, 5, 373-412.
Morrison, E. W. (2014). Employee voice and silence. The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1, 173-197.
Morrison, E. W., Chen, Y. R., & Salgado, S. R. (2004). Cultural differences in newcomer information seeking: A comparison of the United States and Hong Kong. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53, 1-22.
Morrison, E. W., & Milliken, F. J. (2000). Organizational silence: A barrier to change and development in a pluralistic world. Academy of Management Review, 25, 706-725.
Perlow, L. A., & Repenning, N. P. (2009). The dynamics of silencing conflict. Research in Organizational Behavior, 29, 195-223.
Perlow, L., & Williams, S. (2003). Is silence killing your company? Harvard Business Review, 81, 52-59.
Pinder, C., & Harlos, K. (2001). Employee silence: Quiescence and acquiescence as responses to perceived injustice. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 20, 331-369.
Rothwell, G. R., & Baldwin, J. N. (2007). Ethical climate theory, whistle blowing and the code of silence in police agencies in the state of Georgia. Journal of Business Ethics, 70, 341-361.
Schippers, M. C., Homan, A. C., & Van Knippenberg, D. (2013). To reflect and not to reflect: Prior team performance as a boundary of the effects of the reflexivity on learning and final team performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34, 6-23.
Spencer, L. (1989). Winning through participation. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
Stone, D., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Beyond talk: Creating autonomous motivation through self-determination theory. Journal of General Management, 34, 75-91.
Sutton, R. I. (2010). The mum effect and filtering in organizations: The ‘shoot the messenger’ problem. PsychologyToday.com, June 5th, Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2010/06/some-bosses-live-in-a-fools-pa.
Tahmasebi, F., Sobhanipour, S. M., & Aghaziarati, M. (2013). Burnout: Explaining the role of organizational silence and its influence (case study: selected executive organizations of Qom Province). Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research, 3, 272-282.
Tangirala, S., Kamdar, D., Venkataramani, V., & Parke, M. R. (2013). Doing right versus getting ahead: The effects of duty and achievement orientations on employees’ voice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 1040-1050.
Tangirala, S., & Ramanujam, R. (2008). Employee silence on critical work issues: The cross-level effects of procedural justice climate. Personnel Psychology, 61, 37-68.
Tetlock, P. E. (2002). Social functionalist frameworks for judgment and choice: Intuitive politicians, theologians and prosecutors. Psychological Review, 109, 451-471.
Thurlow, C., & Jaworski, A. (2010). Silence is golden. The ‘anti-communicational’ linguascaping of super-elite mobility. In A. Jaworski & C. Thurlow (Eds.), Semiotic landscapes: Language, image, space (pp. 187-218). London: Continuum.
Timming, A. R., & Johnstone, S. (2015). Employee silence and authoritarian personality: A political psychology of workplace democracy. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 23, 154-171.
Vakola, M., & Bourades, D. (2005). Antecedents and consequences of organizational silence: An empirical investigation. Employee Relations, 27, 441-458.
Van Dyne, L., Ang, S., & Botero, I. C. (2003). Conceptualizing employee silence and employee voice as multidimensional constructs. Journal of Management Studies, 40, 1359-1392.
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