The chameleon effect and the stereotypes of nonbelievers held by religious persons
Abstrakt
The study aimed to verify whether the chameleon effect can be a used as an effective technique of stereotype modification. It has already been shown that individuals whose behaviors were mimicked showed an increased positive disposition as well as readiness to help not only the mimicker but also other people – and, in general, this seems to be an effective tool of social influence. Persons who adjust their behaviors start to act cooperatively. The pilot study presented here, run as a natural experiment, aimed to employ the chameleon effect in order to modify the stereotype of nonbelievers as perceived by participants declaring themselves to be believers. The results showed that even though mimicry positively influenced the perception of the stereotyped group, the scope of the modification was somewhat patchy. This means that the mechanism can be effectively applied as a means for the modification of stereotypes and prejudices within certain limits. Since this is one of the first studies venturing to explore this area, further work is necessary to delineate the abovementioned limits and the applicability of the measures that we discuss in the final part of this paper.
Bibliografia
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Amir, Y. (1969). Contact hypothesis in ethnic relations. Psychological Bulletin, 71, 319-342.
Amir, Y. (1976). The role of intergroup contact in change of prejudice and ethnic relations. In P. A. Katz (Ed.), Towards the elimination of racism (pp. 245-308). New York: Pergamon.
Bilewicz, M., Ostolski, A., Wójcik, A., & Wysocka, A. (2004). Pamięć w kontekście międzyetnicznym: „trudne pytania” w kontaktach młodych Polaków i Żydów. Kultura i Społeczeństwo, 3, 143-158 .
Bond, Ch. F., DiCandia, C. G., & MacKinnon, J. R. (1988). Responses to violence in a psychiatric setting: The role of patient’s race. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 448-458.
Brown, R. J. (2000). Group processes: Dynamics within and between groups (2th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
Brewer, M. B., & Miller, N. (1984). Beyond the contact hypothesis: Theoretical perspectives on desegregation. In N. Miller, & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact: The psychology of desegregation (pp. 281-302). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Castelli, L., Pavan, G., Ferrari, E., & Kashima, Y. (2009). The stereotyper and the chameleon: The effects of stereotype use on perceivers’ mimicry. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 2-21.
Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception-behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 893-910.
Cook, S. W. (1962). The systematic analysis of socially significant events: A strategy for social research. Journal of Social Issues, 18, 66-84.
De Houwer, J. (2011). Evaluative conditioning: A review of functional knowledge and mental process theories. In T. R. Schachtman, & S. Reilly (Eds.), Associative of learning and conditioning theory. Human and non-human applications (pp. 399-416). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2008). New directions in aversive racism research: Persistence and pervasiveness. In C. Willis-Esqueda (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Vol. 52: Motivational aspects of prejudice and racism (pp. 43-67). New York: Springer.
Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 708-724.
Hewstone, M., & Brown, R. J. (1986). Contact is not enough: An intergroup perspective on the “contact hypothesis.” In M. Hewstone, & R. J. Brown (Eds.), Contact and conflict in intergroup encounters (pp. 1-44). Oxford: Blackwell.
Huntsinger, J. R., Sinclair S., Dunn E., & Clore G. L. (2010). Affective regulation of stereotype activation: It’s the (accessible) thought that counts. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 564-577.
Inzlicht, M., Gutsell, J. N., & Legault, L. (2012). Mimicry reduces racial prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 361-365.
Isen, A. M., Doubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122-1131.
Jarymowicz, M. (2001). W poszukiwaniu przesłanek sztywności stereotypów. In M. Kofta, & A. Jasińska-Kania (Eds.), Stereotypy i uprzedzenia. Uwarunkowania psychologiczne i kulturowe (pp. 26-43). Warsaw: Scholar.
Kenrick, D., Neuberg, S., & Cialdini, R. (2002). Psychologia społeczna. Rozwiązane tajemnice. Sopot: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Kurcz, I. (1994). Zmienność i nieuchronność stereotypów. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Psychologii PAN.
Lambert, A. J., Khan, S. R., Lickel, B. A., & Fricke, K. (1997). Mood and the correction of positive versus negative stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1002-1016.
Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: Macmillan.
Leander, N. P., Chartrand, T. L., & Wood, W. (2011). Mind your mannerisms: Eliciting stereotype conformity through behavioral mimicry. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 195-201.
Miller, N., Brewer, M., & Edwards, K. (1985). Cooperative interaction in desegregated settings: A laboratory analogue. Journal of Social Issues, 41, 63-79.
Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Urbana: Universitate Illonis Press.
Park, J., & Banaji, M. R. (2000). Mood and heuristics: The influence of happy and sad states on sensitivity and bias in stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 1005-1023.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup conflict theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 65-85.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2000). Does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Recent metaanalytic findings. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination: The Claremont symposium (pp. 93-114). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Sherif, M. (1966). Group conflict and cooperation: Their social psychology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Stanley, D., Phelps, E., & Banaji, M. (2008). The neural basis of implicit attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 164-170.
Stephan, W. G., Renfro, C. L., Esses, V. M., Stephan, C. W., & Martin, T. (2005). The effect of feeling threatened on attitudes toward immigrants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 1-19.
Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1984). The role of ignorance in intergroup relations. In N. Miller, & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact (pp. 229-255). New York: Academic Press.
Tanner, R. J., Ferraro, R., Chartrand, T. J., Bettman, J. R., & van Baaren, R. (2007). Of chameleons and consumption: The impact of mimicry on choice and preferences. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 754-766.
Wolsko, C., Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Bachelor, J. (2003). Intergroup contact: Effects on group evaluations and perceived variability. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6, 93-110.
Van Baaren, R. B., Holland, R. W., Kawakami, K., & van Knippenberg, A. (2004). Mimicry and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science, 15, 71-74.
Voci, A., & Hewstone, M. (2003). Intergroup contact and prejudice towards immigrants in Italy: The mediatonal role of anxiety and the moderational role of group salience. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6, 37-54.
Zanna, M. (1994). On the nature of prejudice. Canadian Psychology, 35, 11-23.
Amir, Y. (1969). Contact hypothesis in ethnic relations. Psychological Bulletin, 71, 319-342.
Amir, Y. (1976). The role of intergroup contact in change of prejudice and ethnic relations. In P. A. Katz (Ed.), Towards the elimination of racism (pp. 245-308). New York: Pergamon.
Bilewicz, M., Ostolski, A., Wójcik, A., & Wysocka, A. (2004). Pamięć w kontekście międzyetnicznym: „trudne pytania” w kontaktach młodych Polaków i Żydów. Kultura i Społeczeństwo, 3, 143-158 .
Bond, Ch. F., DiCandia, C. G., & MacKinnon, J. R. (1988). Responses to violence in a psychiatric setting: The role of patient’s race. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 448-458.
Brown, R. J. (2000). Group processes: Dynamics within and between groups (2th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
Brewer, M. B., & Miller, N. (1984). Beyond the contact hypothesis: Theoretical perspectives on desegregation. In N. Miller, & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact: The psychology of desegregation (pp. 281-302). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Castelli, L., Pavan, G., Ferrari, E., & Kashima, Y. (2009). The stereotyper and the chameleon: The effects of stereotype use on perceivers’ mimicry. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 2-21.
Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception-behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 893-910.
Cook, S. W. (1962). The systematic analysis of socially significant events: A strategy for social research. Journal of Social Issues, 18, 66-84.
De Houwer, J. (2011). Evaluative conditioning: A review of functional knowledge and mental process theories. In T. R. Schachtman, & S. Reilly (Eds.), Associative of learning and conditioning theory. Human and non-human applications (pp. 399-416). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2008). New directions in aversive racism research: Persistence and pervasiveness. In C. Willis-Esqueda (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Vol. 52: Motivational aspects of prejudice and racism (pp. 43-67). New York: Springer.
Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 708-724.
Hewstone, M., & Brown, R. J. (1986). Contact is not enough: An intergroup perspective on the “contact hypothesis.” In M. Hewstone, & R. J. Brown (Eds.), Contact and conflict in intergroup encounters (pp. 1-44). Oxford: Blackwell.
Huntsinger, J. R., Sinclair S., Dunn E., & Clore G. L. (2010). Affective regulation of stereotype activation: It’s the (accessible) thought that counts. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 564-577.
Inzlicht, M., Gutsell, J. N., & Legault, L. (2012). Mimicry reduces racial prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 361-365.
Isen, A. M., Doubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122-1131.
Jarymowicz, M. (2001). W poszukiwaniu przesłanek sztywności stereotypów. In M. Kofta, & A. Jasińska-Kania (Eds.), Stereotypy i uprzedzenia. Uwarunkowania psychologiczne i kulturowe (pp. 26-43). Warsaw: Scholar.
Kenrick, D., Neuberg, S., & Cialdini, R. (2002). Psychologia społeczna. Rozwiązane tajemnice. Sopot: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Kurcz, I. (1994). Zmienność i nieuchronność stereotypów. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Psychologii PAN.
Lambert, A. J., Khan, S. R., Lickel, B. A., & Fricke, K. (1997). Mood and the correction of positive versus negative stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1002-1016.
Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: Macmillan.
Leander, N. P., Chartrand, T. L., & Wood, W. (2011). Mind your mannerisms: Eliciting stereotype conformity through behavioral mimicry. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 195-201.
Miller, N., Brewer, M., & Edwards, K. (1985). Cooperative interaction in desegregated settings: A laboratory analogue. Journal of Social Issues, 41, 63-79.
Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Urbana: Universitate Illonis Press.
Park, J., & Banaji, M. R. (2000). Mood and heuristics: The influence of happy and sad states on sensitivity and bias in stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 1005-1023.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup conflict theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 65-85.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2000). Does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Recent metaanalytic findings. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination: The Claremont symposium (pp. 93-114). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Sherif, M. (1966). Group conflict and cooperation: Their social psychology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Stanley, D., Phelps, E., & Banaji, M. (2008). The neural basis of implicit attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 164-170.
Stephan, W. G., Renfro, C. L., Esses, V. M., Stephan, C. W., & Martin, T. (2005). The effect of feeling threatened on attitudes toward immigrants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 1-19.
Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1984). The role of ignorance in intergroup relations. In N. Miller, & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact (pp. 229-255). New York: Academic Press.
Tanner, R. J., Ferraro, R., Chartrand, T. J., Bettman, J. R., & van Baaren, R. (2007). Of chameleons and consumption: The impact of mimicry on choice and preferences. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 754-766.
Wolsko, C., Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Bachelor, J. (2003). Intergroup contact: Effects on group evaluations and perceived variability. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6, 93-110.
Van Baaren, R. B., Holland, R. W., Kawakami, K., & van Knippenberg, A. (2004). Mimicry and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science, 15, 71-74.
Voci, A., & Hewstone, M. (2003). Intergroup contact and prejudice towards immigrants in Italy: The mediatonal role of anxiety and the moderational role of group salience. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6, 37-54.
Zanna, M. (1994). On the nature of prejudice. Canadian Psychology, 35, 11-23.
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2019-04-04
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