Persistence and effectiveness in goal directed activity: The effect of situational context and the strength of will
Keywords:
autonomy; control; strength of will; persistence; effectiveness
Abstract
The purpose of the present study (N = 120) was to examine whether persistence and effectiveness of goal directed activity depend on situational context (control vs. autonomy support) and individual difference in efficiency of control action mechanisms. The theoretical background for the choice of independent variables included Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci’s Self-Determination Teory and Julius Kuhl’s strength of will conception. The results confirmed the interactional effect of the situational context (control vs. autonomy support) and individual difference in the efficiency of action control mechanisms on persistence and effectiveness. The indexes of persistence and effectiveness were greater for state-oriented participants with externally controlled instructions than for individuals who received autonomy-supportive instructions. Action-oriented participants were less influenced by the specific way of motivating (control vs. autonomy), however, when the effect of the situational context was stronger, action-oriented participants had lower indexes of persistence and effectiveness. In the context of external control, state oriented participants had higher indexes of persistence and effectiveness as compared to action-oriented participants. In the autonomy-support context, action-oriented participants had higher indexes of persistence and effectiveness than state-oriented participants.
References
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Baumann, N., Kaschel, R., Kuhl, J. (2005). Striving for unwanted goals: Stress-depend discrepancies between explicit and implicit achievement motives reduce subjective well-being and increase psychosomatic symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 5, 781-799.
Baumann, N., Kaschel, R., Kuhl, J. (2007). Affect sensitivity and affect regulation in dealing with positive and negative affect. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 239-248.
Baumann, N., Kuhl, J. (2003). Self-infiltration: Confusing assigned tasks as self-selected in me-mory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 487-497.
Baumann, N., Kuhl, J. (2005). How to resist temptation: The effects of external control versus autonomy. Journal of Personality, 73, 444-472.
Baumeister, R. F. (1991). Escaping the self: Alcoholism, spirituality, masochism, and other flights from the burden of selfhood. New York: Basic Books.
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 1-44.
Beckmann, J., Kellmann, M. (2004). Self-regulation and recovery: Approaching an understanding of the process of recovery from stress. Psychological Reports, 95, 1135-1153.
Brunstein, J. C. (2001). Personal goals and action versus state orientation: Who builds a commitment to realistic and need-congruent goals? Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 22, 1-12.
Carver, Ch. S. (2004). Self-regulation of action and affect. W: R. F. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs (red.), Handbook of self-regulation. Research, theory, and applications (s. 13-39). New York: Guilford.
Carver, Ch. S., Pozo, C., Harris, S. D., Noriega, V., Scheier, M. F., Robinson, D. S., Ketcham, A. S., Moffat, F. L., Clark, K. C. (1993). How coping mediates the effect of optimism on distres: A study of women with early stage breast cancer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 375-390.
Carver, Ch. S, Scheier, M. F. (1982). Control theory: A useful conceptual framework for personality social, clinical and health psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 111-135.
Carver, Ch. S., Scheier, M. F. (2004). Perspectives on personality. Boston: The Pearson Education.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Przepływ. Jak poprawić jakość życia. Psychologia optymalnego doświadczenia. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Studio Emka.
Dieffendorf, J. M., Hall, R. J., Lord, R. G., Strean, M. L. (2000). Action-state orientation: Construct validity of a revised measure and its relationship to work-related variables. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 250-263.
Emmons, R. A. (1996). Striving and feeling: Personal goals and subjective well-being. W: P. M. Gollwitzer, J. A. Bargh (red.), The psychology of action; linking cognition and motivation to behavior (s. 313-337). New York: Guilford.
Emmons, R. A. (1998). The psychology of ultimate concerns. New York: Guilford.
Fuhrmann, A., Kuhl, J. (1998). Maintaining a healthy diet: Effects of personality and self-reward versus self-punishment on commitment to and enactment of self-chosen and assigned goals. Psychology and Health, 13, 651-686.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1996). The volitional benefits of planning. W: P. M. Gollwitzer, J. A. Bargh (red.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (s. 287-312). New York: Guilford.
Gollwitzer, P. M., Fujita, K., Oettingen, G. (2004). Planning and the implementation of goals. W: R. F. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs (red.), Handbook of self-regulation. Research, theory, and applications (s. 211-228). New York: The Guilford Press.
Higgins, E. T. (1996). The “self digest”: Self-knowledge serving self-regulatory functions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1062-1083.
Higgins, E. T., Spiegel, S. (2004). Promotion and prevention strategies for self-regulation: A motivated cognition perspective W: R. F. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs (red.), Handbook of self-regulation. Research, theory, and applications (s. 171-187). New York: Guilford.
Hull, J. G. (1981). A self-awareness model of the causes and effects of alcohol consumption. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 586-600.
Kaschel, R., Kuhl, J. (2004). Motivational counseling in an extended functional context: Personality systems interaction theory and assessment. W: W. M. Cox, E. Klinger (red.), Motivational counseling: Motivating people for change (s. 99-119). Sussex: Wiley.
Kazen, M., Baumann, N., Kuhl, J. (2003). Self-infiltration vs. self-compatibility checking in dealing with unattractive tasks: The moderating influence of state vs. action orientation. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 157-197.
Koestner, R., Horberg, E. J., Gaudreau, P., Powers, T., Di Dio, P., Bryan, Ch., Jochum, R., Salter, N. (2006). Bolstering implementation plans fothe long haul: The benefits of simultaneously boosting self-concordance or self-efficacy. Personality and social Psychology Bulletin, 11, 1547-1558.
Koole, S. L. (2004). Volitional shielding of the self: Effects of action orientation and external demands on implicit self-evaluation. Social Cognition, 22, 117-146.
Koole, S. L. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 4-41.
Koole, S. L., Jostmann, N. B. (2004). Getting a grip on your feelings: Effects of action orientation and external demands on intuitive affect regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 6, 974-990.
Koole, S. L., Kuhl, J. (2007). Dealing with unwanted feelings: The role of affect regulation in volitional action control. W: J. Shah, W. Gardner (red.), Handbook of motivation science (s. 295-307). New York: Guilford.
Koole, S. L., Kuhl, J., Jostmann, N. B., Vohs, K. D. (2005). On the hidden benefits of state orientation: Can people prosper without efficient affect regulation skills? W: A. Tesser, J. Wood, D. A Stapel (red.), On building, defending, and regulating the self: A psychological perspective (s. 217-243). London: Taylor and Francis.
Kuhl, J. (1994). Action versus state orientation: Psychometric properties of the Action Control Scale (ACS-90). W: J. Kuhl, J. Beckmann (red.), Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation (s. 47-59). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Kuhl, J. (1996). Who controls whom “when I control myself”? Psychological Inquiry, 7, 1, 61-68.
Kuhl, J., Kazen, M. (1994). Self-discrimination and memory: State orientation and false self-ascription of assigned activities. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 1103-1115.
Kuhl, J., Kazen, M. (1999). Volitional facilitation of difficult intentions: Joint activation of intention memory and positive affect removes Stroop interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 382-399.
Kuhl, J., Kazen, M., Koole, S. L. (2006). Putting self-regulation theory into practice: A user’s manual. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 55, 408-418.
Łukaszewski, W., Marszał-Wiśniewska, M. (2006). Wytrwałość w działaniu. Wyznaczniki sytuacyjne i osobowościowe. Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Magnusson, D. (1988). Individual development from an interactional perspective: A longitudinal study. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Markus, H., Ruvalo, A. (1989). Possible selves: Personalized representations of goals. W: L. A. Pervin (red.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (s. 211-241). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Marszał-Wiśniewska, M. (2002). Adaptacja Skali Kontroli Działania J. Kuhla (ACS-90). Studia Psychologiczne, 40, 77-102.
Mądrzycki, T. (2002). Osobowość jako system tworzący i realizujący plany życiowe. Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo UG.
Palys, T. S., Little, B. R. (1983). Perceived life satisfaction and the organization of personal project systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1221-1230.
Pervin, L. A. (2002). Psychologia osobowości. Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Polivy, J., Herman, C. P. (2000). The False Hope Syndrome: Unfulfilled expectations of self--change. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 128-131.
Polivy, J., Herman, C. P., Hackett, R., Kuleshnyk, I. (1986). The effects of self-attention and public attention on eating in restrained and unrestrained subjects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1253-1260.
Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., Norcross, J. C. (1992). In search of how people change: Applications to addictive behavior. American Psychologist, 47, 1102-1114.
Rothman, A. J. (2000). Toward a theory-based analysis of behavioral maintenance. Health Psychology, 19, 64-69.
Rothman, A. J., Baldwin, A., Hertel, A. (2004). Self-regulation and behavior change: Disen-tangling behavioral initiation and behavioral maintenance. W: R. F. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs (red.), The handbook of self-regulation (s. 130-150). New York: Guilford.
Ryan, R. (1982). Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: An extension of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 736-750.
Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2006). Self-regulation and the problem of human autonomy: Does psychology need choice, self-determination and will? Journal of Personality, 74, 1557-1585.
Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2008). From ego depletion to vitality: Theory and findings concerning the facilitation of energy available to the self. Social and Personality Psychology, 2, 702-717.
Ryan, R. M., Mims, V., Koestner, R. (1983). Relation of reward contingency and interpersonal context to intrinsic motivation: A review and test using cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 736-750.
Sansone, C., Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). “I don’t feel like it”. The function of interest in self--regulation. W: L. L. Martin, A. Tesser (red.), Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation (s. 175-202). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Sansone, C., Wiebe, D. J., Morgan, C. (1999). Self-regulating interest: The moderating role of hardiness and conscientiousness. Journal of Personality, 4, 701-735.
Schmeichel, B. J., Baumeister, R. F. (2004). Self-regulatory strength. W: R. F. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs (red.), Handbook of self-regulation. Research, theory, and applications (s. 84-98). New York: Guilford.
Sheldon, K. M., Kasser, T. (1995). Coherence and congruence: Two aspects of personality integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 3, 531-543.
Vansteenkiste, M., Sheldon, K. M. (2006). There’s nothing more practical than a good theory: Integrating motivational interviewing and self-determination theory. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45, 63-82.
Vohs, K. D., Schmeichel, B. J. (2007). Self-regulation: How and why people reach (and fail to reach) their goals. W: C. Sedikides S. J. Spencer (red.), Frontiers in social psychology: The self (s. 139-162). New York: Psychology Press.
Wieber, F., Gollwitzer, P. M. (2010). Overcoming procrastination through planning. W: C. Andreou, M. D. White (red.), The thief of time: Philosophical essays on procrastination (s. 185-205). New York: Oxford University Press.
Baldwin, M. W. (1999). Activation and accessibility paradigms in relational schemas research. W: D. Cervone, Y. Shoda (red.), Coherence in personality (s. 127-154). New York: Guilford.
Baldwin, M. W., Sinclair, L. (1996). Self-esteem and if-then contingencies of interpersonal acceptance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1130-1141.
Bandura, A. (1989). Self-regulation of motivation and action through internal standards and goal systems. W: L. A. Pervin (red.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (s. 19-85). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bandura, A. (2008). Reconstrual of “Free Will” from the agentic perspective of Social Cognitive Theory. W: J. Baer, J. C. Kaufman, R. F. Baumeister (red.), Are we free? Psychology and Free Will (s. 86-127). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Baumann, N., Kaschel, R., Kuhl, J. (2005). Striving for unwanted goals: Stress-depend discrepancies between explicit and implicit achievement motives reduce subjective well-being and increase psychosomatic symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 5, 781-799.
Baumann, N., Kaschel, R., Kuhl, J. (2007). Affect sensitivity and affect regulation in dealing with positive and negative affect. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 239-248.
Baumann, N., Kuhl, J. (2003). Self-infiltration: Confusing assigned tasks as self-selected in me-mory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 487-497.
Baumann, N., Kuhl, J. (2005). How to resist temptation: The effects of external control versus autonomy. Journal of Personality, 73, 444-472.
Baumeister, R. F. (1991). Escaping the self: Alcoholism, spirituality, masochism, and other flights from the burden of selfhood. New York: Basic Books.
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 1-44.
Beckmann, J., Kellmann, M. (2004). Self-regulation and recovery: Approaching an understanding of the process of recovery from stress. Psychological Reports, 95, 1135-1153.
Brunstein, J. C. (2001). Personal goals and action versus state orientation: Who builds a commitment to realistic and need-congruent goals? Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 22, 1-12.
Carver, Ch. S. (2004). Self-regulation of action and affect. W: R. F. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs (red.), Handbook of self-regulation. Research, theory, and applications (s. 13-39). New York: Guilford.
Carver, Ch. S., Pozo, C., Harris, S. D., Noriega, V., Scheier, M. F., Robinson, D. S., Ketcham, A. S., Moffat, F. L., Clark, K. C. (1993). How coping mediates the effect of optimism on distres: A study of women with early stage breast cancer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 375-390.
Carver, Ch. S, Scheier, M. F. (1982). Control theory: A useful conceptual framework for personality social, clinical and health psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 111-135.
Carver, Ch. S., Scheier, M. F. (2004). Perspectives on personality. Boston: The Pearson Education.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Przepływ. Jak poprawić jakość życia. Psychologia optymalnego doświadczenia. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Studio Emka.
Dieffendorf, J. M., Hall, R. J., Lord, R. G., Strean, M. L. (2000). Action-state orientation: Construct validity of a revised measure and its relationship to work-related variables. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 250-263.
Emmons, R. A. (1996). Striving and feeling: Personal goals and subjective well-being. W: P. M. Gollwitzer, J. A. Bargh (red.), The psychology of action; linking cognition and motivation to behavior (s. 313-337). New York: Guilford.
Emmons, R. A. (1998). The psychology of ultimate concerns. New York: Guilford.
Fuhrmann, A., Kuhl, J. (1998). Maintaining a healthy diet: Effects of personality and self-reward versus self-punishment on commitment to and enactment of self-chosen and assigned goals. Psychology and Health, 13, 651-686.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1996). The volitional benefits of planning. W: P. M. Gollwitzer, J. A. Bargh (red.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (s. 287-312). New York: Guilford.
Gollwitzer, P. M., Fujita, K., Oettingen, G. (2004). Planning and the implementation of goals. W: R. F. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs (red.), Handbook of self-regulation. Research, theory, and applications (s. 211-228). New York: The Guilford Press.
Higgins, E. T. (1996). The “self digest”: Self-knowledge serving self-regulatory functions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1062-1083.
Higgins, E. T., Spiegel, S. (2004). Promotion and prevention strategies for self-regulation: A motivated cognition perspective W: R. F. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs (red.), Handbook of self-regulation. Research, theory, and applications (s. 171-187). New York: Guilford.
Hull, J. G. (1981). A self-awareness model of the causes and effects of alcohol consumption. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 586-600.
Kaschel, R., Kuhl, J. (2004). Motivational counseling in an extended functional context: Personality systems interaction theory and assessment. W: W. M. Cox, E. Klinger (red.), Motivational counseling: Motivating people for change (s. 99-119). Sussex: Wiley.
Kazen, M., Baumann, N., Kuhl, J. (2003). Self-infiltration vs. self-compatibility checking in dealing with unattractive tasks: The moderating influence of state vs. action orientation. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 157-197.
Koestner, R., Horberg, E. J., Gaudreau, P., Powers, T., Di Dio, P., Bryan, Ch., Jochum, R., Salter, N. (2006). Bolstering implementation plans fothe long haul: The benefits of simultaneously boosting self-concordance or self-efficacy. Personality and social Psychology Bulletin, 11, 1547-1558.
Koole, S. L. (2004). Volitional shielding of the self: Effects of action orientation and external demands on implicit self-evaluation. Social Cognition, 22, 117-146.
Koole, S. L. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 4-41.
Koole, S. L., Jostmann, N. B. (2004). Getting a grip on your feelings: Effects of action orientation and external demands on intuitive affect regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 6, 974-990.
Koole, S. L., Kuhl, J. (2007). Dealing with unwanted feelings: The role of affect regulation in volitional action control. W: J. Shah, W. Gardner (red.), Handbook of motivation science (s. 295-307). New York: Guilford.
Koole, S. L., Kuhl, J., Jostmann, N. B., Vohs, K. D. (2005). On the hidden benefits of state orientation: Can people prosper without efficient affect regulation skills? W: A. Tesser, J. Wood, D. A Stapel (red.), On building, defending, and regulating the self: A psychological perspective (s. 217-243). London: Taylor and Francis.
Kuhl, J. (1994). Action versus state orientation: Psychometric properties of the Action Control Scale (ACS-90). W: J. Kuhl, J. Beckmann (red.), Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation (s. 47-59). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Kuhl, J. (1996). Who controls whom “when I control myself”? Psychological Inquiry, 7, 1, 61-68.
Kuhl, J., Kazen, M. (1994). Self-discrimination and memory: State orientation and false self-ascription of assigned activities. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 1103-1115.
Kuhl, J., Kazen, M. (1999). Volitional facilitation of difficult intentions: Joint activation of intention memory and positive affect removes Stroop interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 382-399.
Kuhl, J., Kazen, M., Koole, S. L. (2006). Putting self-regulation theory into practice: A user’s manual. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 55, 408-418.
Łukaszewski, W., Marszał-Wiśniewska, M. (2006). Wytrwałość w działaniu. Wyznaczniki sytuacyjne i osobowościowe. Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Magnusson, D. (1988). Individual development from an interactional perspective: A longitudinal study. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Markus, H., Ruvalo, A. (1989). Possible selves: Personalized representations of goals. W: L. A. Pervin (red.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (s. 211-241). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Marszał-Wiśniewska, M. (2002). Adaptacja Skali Kontroli Działania J. Kuhla (ACS-90). Studia Psychologiczne, 40, 77-102.
Mądrzycki, T. (2002). Osobowość jako system tworzący i realizujący plany życiowe. Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo UG.
Palys, T. S., Little, B. R. (1983). Perceived life satisfaction and the organization of personal project systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1221-1230.
Pervin, L. A. (2002). Psychologia osobowości. Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Polivy, J., Herman, C. P. (2000). The False Hope Syndrome: Unfulfilled expectations of self--change. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 128-131.
Polivy, J., Herman, C. P., Hackett, R., Kuleshnyk, I. (1986). The effects of self-attention and public attention on eating in restrained and unrestrained subjects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1253-1260.
Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., Norcross, J. C. (1992). In search of how people change: Applications to addictive behavior. American Psychologist, 47, 1102-1114.
Rothman, A. J. (2000). Toward a theory-based analysis of behavioral maintenance. Health Psychology, 19, 64-69.
Rothman, A. J., Baldwin, A., Hertel, A. (2004). Self-regulation and behavior change: Disen-tangling behavioral initiation and behavioral maintenance. W: R. F. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs (red.), The handbook of self-regulation (s. 130-150). New York: Guilford.
Ryan, R. (1982). Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: An extension of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 736-750.
Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2006). Self-regulation and the problem of human autonomy: Does psychology need choice, self-determination and will? Journal of Personality, 74, 1557-1585.
Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2008). From ego depletion to vitality: Theory and findings concerning the facilitation of energy available to the self. Social and Personality Psychology, 2, 702-717.
Ryan, R. M., Mims, V., Koestner, R. (1983). Relation of reward contingency and interpersonal context to intrinsic motivation: A review and test using cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 736-750.
Sansone, C., Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). “I don’t feel like it”. The function of interest in self--regulation. W: L. L. Martin, A. Tesser (red.), Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation (s. 175-202). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Sansone, C., Wiebe, D. J., Morgan, C. (1999). Self-regulating interest: The moderating role of hardiness and conscientiousness. Journal of Personality, 4, 701-735.
Schmeichel, B. J., Baumeister, R. F. (2004). Self-regulatory strength. W: R. F. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs (red.), Handbook of self-regulation. Research, theory, and applications (s. 84-98). New York: Guilford.
Sheldon, K. M., Kasser, T. (1995). Coherence and congruence: Two aspects of personality integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 3, 531-543.
Vansteenkiste, M., Sheldon, K. M. (2006). There’s nothing more practical than a good theory: Integrating motivational interviewing and self-determination theory. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45, 63-82.
Vohs, K. D., Schmeichel, B. J. (2007). Self-regulation: How and why people reach (and fail to reach) their goals. W: C. Sedikides S. J. Spencer (red.), Frontiers in social psychology: The self (s. 139-162). New York: Psychology Press.
Wieber, F., Gollwitzer, P. M. (2010). Overcoming procrastination through planning. W: C. Andreou, M. D. White (red.), The thief of time: Philosophical essays on procrastination (s. 185-205). New York: Oxford University Press.
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