The stability of structure and profiles of perceived personality traits of polish politicians
Keywords:
lexical approach; social perception; image; politicians; personality assessments; personality descriptors; factor analysis; election campaign
Abstract
The main objective of the study was to analyze the stability of the basic dimensions of personality, with regard to perception of Polish politicians. The two-stage research was conducted within the stream of the trait theory, using the material obtained from Polish lexical research extended by the adjectives specific for politicians. 390 people before the election campaign and 557 people at the end of the election campaign were describing 24 politicians, who were randomly combined in 6 sets, 4 politicians in each, using an adjectives check list. The principal component analysis allowed extracting four common dimensions of the politicians’ perceived personalities: Competence (Intellect+Conscientiousness), Extraversion (Openness+Energy), Impulsiveness /Non-agreeableness and Honesty. The factor structure of perceived personality traits was stable. The results of research are discussed in light of previous studies.
References
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Alvarez, R. M. (1997). Information and elections. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., Perugini, M., Szarota, P., de Vries, R. E., Di Blas, L., Boies, K., De Raad, B. (2004). A six-factor structure of personality-descriptive adjectives: Solutions from psycholexical studies in seven languages. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 2, 356-366. Bartels, L. M. (1986). Issue voting under uncertainty: An empirical test. American Journal of Political Science, 30, 709-728.
Bean, C. (1993). The electoral influence of party leader images in Australia and New Zealand. Comparative Political Studies, 26, 1, 111-132.
Bean, C., Mughan, A. (1989). Leadership effects in parliamentary elections in Australia and Britain. The American Political Science Review, 83, 4, 1165-1179.
Brooks, D. (2000). Negative campaigning disliked by most americans. Gallup Poll Monthly, 418, 5-8. Brown, S. D., Lambert, R. D., Kay, B. J., Curtis, J. E. (1988). In the Eye of the Beholder: Leader images in Canada. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 21, 4, 729-755.
Browne, M. W., Cudeck, R. (1992). Alternative Ways of Assessing Model Fit. Sociological Methods & Research, 21, 2, 230-258.
Capelos, T., Hendrix, M., Stammen, M., Otter, A. D., Piccio, D., Buijs, L. (2005). Curse or blessing? The impact of candidate image in evaluation of united states policy messages in Europe. Conference Papers of Midwestern Political Science Association; 2005 Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL, 1-40.
Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Zimbardo, P. (1997). Politician’s uniquely restricted personalities. Nature, 6, 385-493.
Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Zimbardo, P. (2002). When parsimony subdues distinctiveness: Simplified public perceptions of politicians’ personality. Political Psychology, 23, 1, 77-95. Caprara, G. V., Zimbardo, P. (2004). Personalizing politics: A Congruency Model of Political Preference. American Psychologist, 59, 7, 581-594.
Castelli, L., Carraro, L. (2008). The multifaceted effects of negative campaigns: Their positive and negative consequences on the perception of politicians. Referat wygłoszony na ISPP 31st Annual Scientific Meeting, Paryż, 9 lipca 2008.
CBOS (1997). Portrety liderów opozycji. Komunikat z badań. BS/52/52/97; http://www.cbos.pl (10.03.2007).
CBOS (2005-2007). Zaufanie do polityków. Raporty z badań umieszczone na stronie http://www.cbos.pl (1.04.2007).
Costa, P. T., McCrae, R. R. (1992). Trait psychology comes of age. W: T. B. Sonderegger (red.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Psychology and aging (t. 39, s. 169-204). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Cwalina, W. (2000). Telewizyjna reklama polityczna. Lublin: Towarzystwo Naukowe Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego.
Cwalina, W., Falkowski, A. (2005). Marketing polityczny. Perspektywa psychologiczna. Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Cwalina, W., Falkowski, A., Rożnowski, B. (1997). Decyzyjna teoria spostrzegania w badaniach preferencji politycznych. Analiza metodologiczna. Przegląd Psychologiczny, 40, 331-346.
Druckman, J. N. (2003). The power of television images: The first Kennedy-Nixon Debate revisited. The Journal of Politics, 65, 2, 559-571.
Forgas, J. P. (1980). Implicit representations of political leaders: A multidimensional analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 10, 4, 295-310.
Forgas, J. P., Kagan, C., Frey, D. (1977). The cognitive representation of political personalities: A cross-cultural comparison. International Journal of Psychology, 12, 1, 19-30.
Franklin, C. H. (1991). Eschewing obfuscation? Campaigns and perceptions of U.S. senate incumbents. The American Political Science Review, 85, 4, 1193-1214.
Funk, C. L. (1997). Implications of political expertise in candidate trait evaluations. Political Research Quarterly, 50, 3, 675-697.
Funk, C. L. (1999). Bringing the candidate into Models of Candidate Evaluation. The Journal of Politics, 61, 3, 700-720.
Glasgow, G., Alvarez, R. M. (2000). Uncertainty and candidate personality traits. American Politics Quarterly, 28, 1, 26-49.
Goldberg L. R. (1990). An alternative “Description of Personality”: The Big-Five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 6, 1216-1229.
Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 4, 1, 26-42.
Gorbaniuk, O., Krzyszycha, G., Krulikowska, A. (w druku). Wpływ preferencji politycznych wyborców na postrzeganie cech osobowości polityków. W: K. Gusztyła-Stasiuk, B. Danieluk (red.), Lubelskie spotkania z psychologią społeczną.
Herzog, R. A., Bachman, J. G. (1981). Effects of questionnaire length on response quality. Public Opinion Quarterly, 45, 549-559.
Iyengar, S., Kinder, D. R., Peters, M. D., Krosnick, J. A. (1984). The evening news and presidential evaluations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 4, 778-787.
Jacobs, L. R., Shapiro, R. Y. (1994). Issues, candidate image, and priming: The use of private polls in Kennedy’s 1960 presidential campaign. The American Political Science Review, 88, 3, 527-540.
Jarymowicz, M. (1980). Makiawelizm - osobowość ludzi nastawionych na manipulowanie innymi. W: J. Reykowski (red.), Osobowość a społeczne zachowanie się ludzi (s. 285-317). Warszawa: KiW.
John, O., Angleitner, A., Ostendorf, F. (1988). The lexical approach to personality: A historical review of trait taxonomic research. European Journal of Personality, 2, 171-203.
Kaase, M. (1994). Is there personalization in politics? Candidates and voting behavior in Germany. International Political Science Review, 15, 211-230.
Kinder, D. R. (1986). Presidential character revisited. W: R. Lau, D. Sears (red.), Political cognition (s. 233-255). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Kinder, D. R. (1998). Communication and opinion. Annual Review of Political Science, 1, 1, 167-139.
King, J. D., McConnell, J. B. (2003). The effect of negative campaign advertising on vote choice: The mediating influence of gender. Social Science Quarterly, 84, 4, 843-857.
Klein, J. G. (1991). Negativity effects in impression formation: A test in the political arena. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 4, 412-418.
Klingemann, H. D., Wattenberg, M. P. (1992). Decaying versus developing party systems. British Journal of Political Science, 22, 131-149.
Lau, R. R., Sigelman, L., Heldman, C., Babbit, P. (1999). The effects of negative political advertisements: A meta-analytical assessment. American Political Science Review, 93, 4, 851-875.
Lee, K., Ashton, M. C. (2004). Psychometric properties of the HEXACO Personality Inventory. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 2, 329-358.
Leon, G. R., Gillum, B., Gillum, R., Gouze, M. (1979). Personality stability and change over a 30-year period-middle age to old age. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 3, 517-524.
Lodge, M., McGraw, K. M., Stroh, P. (1989). An impression-driven model of candidate evaluation. The American Political Science Review, 83, 2, 399-419.
Lord, C., Ross, L., Lepper, M., (1979). Biased assimilation and attitude polarization: The effects of prior theories on subsequently considered evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 11, 2098-2109.
Markus, G. B. (1982). Political attitudes during an election year: A report on the 1980 NES panel study. American Political Science Review, 76, 3, 538-560.
Matthews, D., Dietz-Uhler, B. (1998). The Black-Sheep Effect: How positive and negative advertisements affect voters’ perceptions of the sponsor of the advertisement. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28, 1903-1915.
McCann, J. (1990). Changing electoral contexts and changing candidate images during the 1984 presidential campaign. American Politics Quarterly, 18, 2, 123-140.
McCann, J. A., Lawson, C. (2006). Presidential campaigns and the knowledge gap in three transitional democracies. Political Research Quarterly, 59, 1, 13-22.
McCrae, R. R. (1982). Consensual validation of personality traits: Evidence from self-reports and ratings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 293-303.
McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T. (1983). Joint factors in self-reports and ratings: Neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience. Personality and Individual Differences, 4, 245-255.
McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T. (1994). The stability of personality: Observations and evaluations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6, 3, 173-175.
McCurley, C., Mondak, J. J. (1995). The influence of incumbents’ competence and integrity in U.S. House Elections. American Journal of Political Science, 39, 4, 864-885.
McGraw, K. M., Timpone, R., Bruck, G. (1993). Justifying controversial political decisions: Home style in the laboratory. Political Behavior, 15, 289-308.
Merritt, S. (1984). Negative political advertising: Some empirical finding. Journal of Advertising, 13, 3, 27-38.
Miller, W. E., Shanks, J. M. (1996). The new American voter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Min, Y. (2004). New coverage of negative political campaigns: An experiment of negative campaign effects on turnout and candidate preference. Harvard International Journal of Press/ Politics, 9, 4, 95-111.
Mondak, J. J. (1995). Competence, integrity, and the electoral success of congressional Incumbents. The Journal of Politics, 57, 4, 1043-1069.
Moskowitz, D., Stroh, P. (1996). Expectation-driven assessments of political candidates. Political Psychology, 17, 4, 695-712.
Musek, J. (2007). A general factor of personality: Evidence for the Big One in the Five-factor model. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 6, 1213-1233.
Norman, W. T. (1963). Toward an adequate taxonomy of personality attributes: Replicated factor structure in peer nomination personality ratings. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 574-583.
Pancer, M. S., Brown, S. D., Barr, C. W. (1999). Forming impressions of political leaders: A crossnational comparison. Political Psychology, 20, 2, 345-368.
Passini, F. T., Norman, W. T. (1966). A universal conception of personality structure? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 44-49.
PBS DGA (2007). Polska przez pryzmat wyborów; http://www.tvn24.pl (5.08.2008).
Peabody, D., Goldberg, L. (1989). Some determinants of factor structures from personality-trait descriptors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 552-567.
Rosenberg, S. W., McCafferty, P. (1987). The image and the vote manipulating voters’ preferences. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 51, 1, 31-47.
Saucier, G. (1994). Separating description and evaluation in the structure of personality attributes. Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 66, 1, 141-154.
Saucier, G. (1998). A hierarchy of personality factors in the natural language. Referat wygłoszony na 9th European Conference on Personality, Guildford, U.K.
Saucier, G., Ostendorf, F., Peabody, D. (2001). The non-evaluative circumplex of personality adjectives. Journal of Personality, 69, 4, 537-582.
Schultz, C., Pancer, M. S. (1997). Character attacks and their effects on perceptions of male and female political candidates. Political Psychology, 18, 1, 93-102.
Shanks, J. M., Miller, W. E. (1991). Partisanship, policy and performance: The Reagan legacy in the 1988 election. British Journal of Political Science, 21, 2, 129-197.
Shields, S. A., MacDowell, K. A. (1987). “Appropriate” emotion in politicians: Judgments of a televised debate. Journal of Communication, 37, 78-89.
Skarżyńska, K. (2005). Człowiek a polityka. Zarys psychologii politycznej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar.
Stewart, M. C., Clarke, H. D. (1992). The (un)importance of party leaders: Leader images and party choice in the 1987 British election. The Journal of Politics, 54, 2, 447-470.
Szarota, P. (1995). Polska Lista Przymiotnikowa (PLP): narzędzie do diagnozy pięciu wielkich czynników osobowości. Studia Psychologiczne, 23, 1-2, 227-255.
Szarota, P., Ashton, M. C., Lee, K. (2007). Taxonomy and structure of the Polish Personality Lexicon. European Journal of Personality, 21, 823-852.
TNS OBOP (2000). Postulowany model prezydentury; http://www.tns-global.pl/archive-report (10.03.2007).
Watson (1989). Strangers’ ratings of the five robust personality factors: Evidence of a surprising convergence with self-report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1, 120-128.
Wattenberg, M. P. (1991). The rise of candidate-centered politics: Presidential elections of the 1980’s. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wodder, N. C., Hall, W. E. (1962). An analysis of peer ratings. Personnel & Guidance Journal, 40, 7, 1962, 606-609.
Wojciszke, B. (1994). Multiple meanings of behavior: Construing actions in terms of competence and morality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 222-232.
Wojciszke, B. (2005). Morality and competence in person and self-perception. European Review of Social Psychology, 16, 155-188.
Yoon, K., Pinkleton, B., Ko, W. (2005). Effects of negative political advertising on voting intention: An exploration of the roles of involvement and source credibility in the development of voter cynicism. Journal of Marketing Communications, 11, 2, 95-112.
Alvarez, R. M. (1997). Information and elections. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., Perugini, M., Szarota, P., de Vries, R. E., Di Blas, L., Boies, K., De Raad, B. (2004). A six-factor structure of personality-descriptive adjectives: Solutions from psycholexical studies in seven languages. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 2, 356-366. Bartels, L. M. (1986). Issue voting under uncertainty: An empirical test. American Journal of Political Science, 30, 709-728.
Bean, C. (1993). The electoral influence of party leader images in Australia and New Zealand. Comparative Political Studies, 26, 1, 111-132.
Bean, C., Mughan, A. (1989). Leadership effects in parliamentary elections in Australia and Britain. The American Political Science Review, 83, 4, 1165-1179.
Brooks, D. (2000). Negative campaigning disliked by most americans. Gallup Poll Monthly, 418, 5-8. Brown, S. D., Lambert, R. D., Kay, B. J., Curtis, J. E. (1988). In the Eye of the Beholder: Leader images in Canada. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 21, 4, 729-755.
Browne, M. W., Cudeck, R. (1992). Alternative Ways of Assessing Model Fit. Sociological Methods & Research, 21, 2, 230-258.
Capelos, T., Hendrix, M., Stammen, M., Otter, A. D., Piccio, D., Buijs, L. (2005). Curse or blessing? The impact of candidate image in evaluation of united states policy messages in Europe. Conference Papers of Midwestern Political Science Association; 2005 Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL, 1-40.
Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Zimbardo, P. (1997). Politician’s uniquely restricted personalities. Nature, 6, 385-493.
Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Zimbardo, P. (2002). When parsimony subdues distinctiveness: Simplified public perceptions of politicians’ personality. Political Psychology, 23, 1, 77-95. Caprara, G. V., Zimbardo, P. (2004). Personalizing politics: A Congruency Model of Political Preference. American Psychologist, 59, 7, 581-594.
Castelli, L., Carraro, L. (2008). The multifaceted effects of negative campaigns: Their positive and negative consequences on the perception of politicians. Referat wygłoszony na ISPP 31st Annual Scientific Meeting, Paryż, 9 lipca 2008.
CBOS (1997). Portrety liderów opozycji. Komunikat z badań. BS/52/52/97; http://www.cbos.pl (10.03.2007).
CBOS (2005-2007). Zaufanie do polityków. Raporty z badań umieszczone na stronie http://www.cbos.pl (1.04.2007).
Costa, P. T., McCrae, R. R. (1992). Trait psychology comes of age. W: T. B. Sonderegger (red.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Psychology and aging (t. 39, s. 169-204). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Cwalina, W. (2000). Telewizyjna reklama polityczna. Lublin: Towarzystwo Naukowe Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego.
Cwalina, W., Falkowski, A. (2005). Marketing polityczny. Perspektywa psychologiczna. Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Cwalina, W., Falkowski, A., Rożnowski, B. (1997). Decyzyjna teoria spostrzegania w badaniach preferencji politycznych. Analiza metodologiczna. Przegląd Psychologiczny, 40, 331-346.
Druckman, J. N. (2003). The power of television images: The first Kennedy-Nixon Debate revisited. The Journal of Politics, 65, 2, 559-571.
Forgas, J. P. (1980). Implicit representations of political leaders: A multidimensional analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 10, 4, 295-310.
Forgas, J. P., Kagan, C., Frey, D. (1977). The cognitive representation of political personalities: A cross-cultural comparison. International Journal of Psychology, 12, 1, 19-30.
Franklin, C. H. (1991). Eschewing obfuscation? Campaigns and perceptions of U.S. senate incumbents. The American Political Science Review, 85, 4, 1193-1214.
Funk, C. L. (1997). Implications of political expertise in candidate trait evaluations. Political Research Quarterly, 50, 3, 675-697.
Funk, C. L. (1999). Bringing the candidate into Models of Candidate Evaluation. The Journal of Politics, 61, 3, 700-720.
Glasgow, G., Alvarez, R. M. (2000). Uncertainty and candidate personality traits. American Politics Quarterly, 28, 1, 26-49.
Goldberg L. R. (1990). An alternative “Description of Personality”: The Big-Five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 6, 1216-1229.
Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 4, 1, 26-42.
Gorbaniuk, O., Krzyszycha, G., Krulikowska, A. (w druku). Wpływ preferencji politycznych wyborców na postrzeganie cech osobowości polityków. W: K. Gusztyła-Stasiuk, B. Danieluk (red.), Lubelskie spotkania z psychologią społeczną.
Herzog, R. A., Bachman, J. G. (1981). Effects of questionnaire length on response quality. Public Opinion Quarterly, 45, 549-559.
Iyengar, S., Kinder, D. R., Peters, M. D., Krosnick, J. A. (1984). The evening news and presidential evaluations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 4, 778-787.
Jacobs, L. R., Shapiro, R. Y. (1994). Issues, candidate image, and priming: The use of private polls in Kennedy’s 1960 presidential campaign. The American Political Science Review, 88, 3, 527-540.
Jarymowicz, M. (1980). Makiawelizm - osobowość ludzi nastawionych na manipulowanie innymi. W: J. Reykowski (red.), Osobowość a społeczne zachowanie się ludzi (s. 285-317). Warszawa: KiW.
John, O., Angleitner, A., Ostendorf, F. (1988). The lexical approach to personality: A historical review of trait taxonomic research. European Journal of Personality, 2, 171-203.
Kaase, M. (1994). Is there personalization in politics? Candidates and voting behavior in Germany. International Political Science Review, 15, 211-230.
Kinder, D. R. (1986). Presidential character revisited. W: R. Lau, D. Sears (red.), Political cognition (s. 233-255). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Kinder, D. R. (1998). Communication and opinion. Annual Review of Political Science, 1, 1, 167-139.
King, J. D., McConnell, J. B. (2003). The effect of negative campaign advertising on vote choice: The mediating influence of gender. Social Science Quarterly, 84, 4, 843-857.
Klein, J. G. (1991). Negativity effects in impression formation: A test in the political arena. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 4, 412-418.
Klingemann, H. D., Wattenberg, M. P. (1992). Decaying versus developing party systems. British Journal of Political Science, 22, 131-149.
Lau, R. R., Sigelman, L., Heldman, C., Babbit, P. (1999). The effects of negative political advertisements: A meta-analytical assessment. American Political Science Review, 93, 4, 851-875.
Lee, K., Ashton, M. C. (2004). Psychometric properties of the HEXACO Personality Inventory. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 2, 329-358.
Leon, G. R., Gillum, B., Gillum, R., Gouze, M. (1979). Personality stability and change over a 30-year period-middle age to old age. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 3, 517-524.
Lodge, M., McGraw, K. M., Stroh, P. (1989). An impression-driven model of candidate evaluation. The American Political Science Review, 83, 2, 399-419.
Lord, C., Ross, L., Lepper, M., (1979). Biased assimilation and attitude polarization: The effects of prior theories on subsequently considered evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 11, 2098-2109.
Markus, G. B. (1982). Political attitudes during an election year: A report on the 1980 NES panel study. American Political Science Review, 76, 3, 538-560.
Matthews, D., Dietz-Uhler, B. (1998). The Black-Sheep Effect: How positive and negative advertisements affect voters’ perceptions of the sponsor of the advertisement. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28, 1903-1915.
McCann, J. (1990). Changing electoral contexts and changing candidate images during the 1984 presidential campaign. American Politics Quarterly, 18, 2, 123-140.
McCann, J. A., Lawson, C. (2006). Presidential campaigns and the knowledge gap in three transitional democracies. Political Research Quarterly, 59, 1, 13-22.
McCrae, R. R. (1982). Consensual validation of personality traits: Evidence from self-reports and ratings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 293-303.
McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T. (1983). Joint factors in self-reports and ratings: Neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience. Personality and Individual Differences, 4, 245-255.
McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T. (1994). The stability of personality: Observations and evaluations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6, 3, 173-175.
McCurley, C., Mondak, J. J. (1995). The influence of incumbents’ competence and integrity in U.S. House Elections. American Journal of Political Science, 39, 4, 864-885.
McGraw, K. M., Timpone, R., Bruck, G. (1993). Justifying controversial political decisions: Home style in the laboratory. Political Behavior, 15, 289-308.
Merritt, S. (1984). Negative political advertising: Some empirical finding. Journal of Advertising, 13, 3, 27-38.
Miller, W. E., Shanks, J. M. (1996). The new American voter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Min, Y. (2004). New coverage of negative political campaigns: An experiment of negative campaign effects on turnout and candidate preference. Harvard International Journal of Press/ Politics, 9, 4, 95-111.
Mondak, J. J. (1995). Competence, integrity, and the electoral success of congressional Incumbents. The Journal of Politics, 57, 4, 1043-1069.
Moskowitz, D., Stroh, P. (1996). Expectation-driven assessments of political candidates. Political Psychology, 17, 4, 695-712.
Musek, J. (2007). A general factor of personality: Evidence for the Big One in the Five-factor model. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 6, 1213-1233.
Norman, W. T. (1963). Toward an adequate taxonomy of personality attributes: Replicated factor structure in peer nomination personality ratings. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 574-583.
Pancer, M. S., Brown, S. D., Barr, C. W. (1999). Forming impressions of political leaders: A crossnational comparison. Political Psychology, 20, 2, 345-368.
Passini, F. T., Norman, W. T. (1966). A universal conception of personality structure? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 44-49.
PBS DGA (2007). Polska przez pryzmat wyborów; http://www.tvn24.pl (5.08.2008).
Peabody, D., Goldberg, L. (1989). Some determinants of factor structures from personality-trait descriptors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 552-567.
Rosenberg, S. W., McCafferty, P. (1987). The image and the vote manipulating voters’ preferences. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 51, 1, 31-47.
Saucier, G. (1994). Separating description and evaluation in the structure of personality attributes. Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 66, 1, 141-154.
Saucier, G. (1998). A hierarchy of personality factors in the natural language. Referat wygłoszony na 9th European Conference on Personality, Guildford, U.K.
Saucier, G., Ostendorf, F., Peabody, D. (2001). The non-evaluative circumplex of personality adjectives. Journal of Personality, 69, 4, 537-582.
Schultz, C., Pancer, M. S. (1997). Character attacks and their effects on perceptions of male and female political candidates. Political Psychology, 18, 1, 93-102.
Shanks, J. M., Miller, W. E. (1991). Partisanship, policy and performance: The Reagan legacy in the 1988 election. British Journal of Political Science, 21, 2, 129-197.
Shields, S. A., MacDowell, K. A. (1987). “Appropriate” emotion in politicians: Judgments of a televised debate. Journal of Communication, 37, 78-89.
Skarżyńska, K. (2005). Człowiek a polityka. Zarys psychologii politycznej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar.
Stewart, M. C., Clarke, H. D. (1992). The (un)importance of party leaders: Leader images and party choice in the 1987 British election. The Journal of Politics, 54, 2, 447-470.
Szarota, P. (1995). Polska Lista Przymiotnikowa (PLP): narzędzie do diagnozy pięciu wielkich czynników osobowości. Studia Psychologiczne, 23, 1-2, 227-255.
Szarota, P., Ashton, M. C., Lee, K. (2007). Taxonomy and structure of the Polish Personality Lexicon. European Journal of Personality, 21, 823-852.
TNS OBOP (2000). Postulowany model prezydentury; http://www.tns-global.pl/archive-report (10.03.2007).
Watson (1989). Strangers’ ratings of the five robust personality factors: Evidence of a surprising convergence with self-report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1, 120-128.
Wattenberg, M. P. (1991). The rise of candidate-centered politics: Presidential elections of the 1980’s. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wodder, N. C., Hall, W. E. (1962). An analysis of peer ratings. Personnel & Guidance Journal, 40, 7, 1962, 606-609.
Wojciszke, B. (1994). Multiple meanings of behavior: Construing actions in terms of competence and morality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 222-232.
Wojciszke, B. (2005). Morality and competence in person and self-perception. European Review of Social Psychology, 16, 155-188.
Yoon, K., Pinkleton, B., Ko, W. (2005). Effects of negative political advertising on voting intention: An exploration of the roles of involvement and source credibility in the development of voter cynicism. Journal of Marketing Communications, 11, 2, 95-112.
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