Changes in the self in the course of psychotherapy
Keywords:
self-concept; the content of the self; self-structure; the effectiveness of psychotherapy; the process of psychotherapy
Abstract
The article is devoted to how the process and effects of psychotherapy may be analyzed and understood from the point of view of research on self-concept. Based on an analysis of the literature and their own clinical experience, the authors try to answer the following four research questions: (1) What does the change in self-concept in the course of psychotherapy consist in? (2) What is it that changes in self-concept: the structure, the content, or both? What are the mechanisms of the change? (3) What effects do changes in the self bring for the client’s functioning? (4) Is it possible for a change to occur in the course of psychotherapy without being accompanied by a change in the self? In order to answer these questions, a review of empirical research on changes in the content and structure of the self is carried out. The authors present the findings of studies referring, for example, to concepts such as: compartmentalization (Showers), self-complexity (Linville), objective self-awareness (Duval), possible selves (Markus), or self-concept clarity (Campbell). The final part of the article presents conclusions for practitioners. The highlighted issues include the building of a complete and generally positive self-concept, with those negative elements that bring more complete self-knowledge and give a direction to a person’s development. It is remarked that a change in the content of the self carries with it a change in self-structure, the latter being more strongly linked to adjustment and mental health than content change itself. The authors emphasize the protective role of positive future self-concept and point out that if the precondition of mental health and effective self-regulation is up-to-date and extensive self-knowledge, then psychotherapy by definition involves change in the self.
References
Bak, W. (2014). Self-standards and self-discrepancies. A structural model of self-knowledge. Current Psychology, 33, 155-173.
Bąk, W. i Gołębiowska, N. (2012). Stabilna struktura niestabilnych treści. Stałość i zmienność w samowiedzy. Plakat prezentowany na IX Zjeździe Polskiego Stowarzyszenia Psychologii Społecznej, Sopot.
Campbell, J. D., Assananad, S. i Di Paula, A. (2003). The structure of self-concept and its relation to psychological adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71, 115-140.
Campbell, J. D., Assananad, S. i Di Paula, A. (2004). Cechy strukturalne pojęcia Ja a przystosowanie. W: A. Tesser, R. B. Felson i J. M. Suls (red.), Ja i tożsamość (s. 70-88). Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Campbell, J. D., Trapnell, P. D, Heine, S. J., Katz, I. M., Lavallee, L. F. i Lehman, D. R. (1996). Self-concept clarity: Measurement, personality correlates, and cultural boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 141-156.
Carver, C. S. i Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Coats, E. K., Janoff-Bulman, R. i Alpert, N. (1996). Approach versus avoidance goals: Differences in self-evaluation and well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1057-1067.
Drożdżowicz, L. (2000). Struktura „Ja” w schizofrenii. Psychoterapia, 115(4), 21-34.
Dunkel, C. S., Kelts, D. i Coon, B. (2006). Possible selves as mechanisms of change in therapy. W: C. Dunkel i J. Kerpelman (red.), Possible selves. Theory, research and applications (s. 187-204). New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Duval, T. S. i Lalwani, N. (1999). Objective self-awareness and causal attributions for self- -standard discrepancies: Changing self or changing standards of correctness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1220-1229.
Duval, T. S. i Wicklund, R. A. (1972). A theory of objective self-awareness. New York: Academic Press.
Elliott, K. L. (2008). The relation of self-discrepancy to anxiety and depression as psychotherapy change measures. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 68(9-B), 6301.
Erikson, M. G. (2007). The meaning of the future: Toward a more specific definition of possible selves. Review of General Psychology, 11, 348-358.
Frazier, L. D., Hooker, K., Johnson, P. M. i Kaus, C. R. (2000). Continuity and change in possible selves in later life: A 5-year longitudinal study. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 22, 237-243.
Gara, M. A., Woolfolk, R. L., Cohen, B. D., Goldston, R. B., Allen, L. A. i Novalany, J. (1993). Perception of self and other in major depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 93-100.
Grzesiuk, L. (red.) (2005). Psychoterapia. Teoria. Warszawa: Eneteia.
Harter, S. (1996). Historical roots of contemporary issues involving self-concept. W: B. A. Bracken (red.), Handbook of self-concept. Developmental, social, and clinical considerations (s. 1-37). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.
Hoyle, R. H. i Sherrill, M. R. (2006). Future orientation in the self-system: Possible selves, self- -regulation, and behavior. Journal of Personality, 74, 1673-1696.
Huflejt-Łukasik, M. (2010). Ja i procesy samoregulacji: różnice między zdrowiem a zaburzeniami psychicznymi. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar.
James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. New York: Holt.
Kinderman, P., Prince, S., Waller, G. i Peters, E. (2003). Self-discrepancies, attentional bias and persecutory delusions. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 1-12.
Leary, M. R. i Tangney, J. P. (2003). The self as an organizing construct in the behavioral and social sciences. W: M. R. Leary i J. P. Tangney (red.), Handbook of self and identity (s. 3-14). New York: The Guilford Press.
Linville, P. W. (1985). Self-complexity and affective extremity: Don’t put all of your eggs in one cognitive basket. Social Cognition, 1, 94-120.
Linville, P. W. (1987). Self-complexity as a cognitive buffer against stress-related illness and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 663-676.
Markus, H. (1977). Self-schemata and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 63-78.
Markus, H. i Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954-969.
Markus, H. i Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 299-337.
Marsh, H. W. i Ayotte, V. (2003). Do multiple dimensions of self-concept become more differentiated with age? The differential distinctiveness hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 687-706.
Morgan, H. J. i Janoff-Bulmann, R. (1994). Positive and negative self-complexity: Patterns of adjustment following traumatic versus non-traumatic life experience. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13, 63-85.
Niemiec, M. (2012). Pozytywne i negatywne standardy Ja a działania podejmowane w celu ich osiągnięcia oraz dobrostan psychiczny osoby. Niepublikowana praca magisterska. Uniwersytet Warszawski, Wydział Psychologii, Warszawa.
Oyserman, D. i Markus, H. R. (1990). Possible selves and delinquency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 12-125.
Pelham, B. W. (1991). On the benefits of misery: Self-serving biases in the depressive self- -concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 670-681.
Pemberton, E. D. (2009). The relationship between self-discrepancy, depression severity, and psychotherapy treatment in depressed older adults. Dissertation Abstracts International. Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 69(8-B), 5047.
Phillips, E. L., Raiford, A. i El-Batrawi, S. (1965). The Q sort reevaluated. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 29, 422-425.
Poon, W.-T. i Lau, S. (1999). Coping with failure: Relationship with self-concept discrepancy and attributional style. The Journal of Social Psychology, 139, 639-653.
Prochaska, J. O. i Norcross, J. C. (2006). Systemy psychoterapeutyczne. Analiza transteoretyczna. Warszawa: Instytut Psychologii Zdrowia PTP.
Rakowska, J. M. (2006). Sukces i porażka terapii krótkoterminowej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar.
Roepke, S., Schröder-Abé, M., Schütz, A., Jacob, G., Dams, A., Vater, A., Rüter, A., Merkl A., Heuser I. i Lammers C. H. (2011). Dialectic behavioural therapy has an impact on self- -concept clarity and facets of self-esteem in women with borderline personality disorder. Clin-ical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 18, 148-158.
Rogers, C. (1984). Teoria terapii osobowości i relacji interpersonalnych rozwinięta w oparciu o podejście skoncentrowane na kliencie. Nowiny Psychologiczne, 2-3, 1-91.
Showers, C. J. (1992). Evaluative integrative thinking about characteristics of the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 719-729.
Showers, C. J., Abramson, L. Y. i Hogan, M. E. (1998). The dynamic self: How the content and structure of the self-concept change with mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 478-493.
Showers, C. J. i Kling, K. C. (1996). Organization of self-knowledge: Implications for recovery from sad mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 578-590.
Showers, C. J. i Zeigler-Hill, V. (2003). Organization of self-knowledge: Features, functions, and flexibility. W: M. R. Leary i J. P. Tangney (red.), Handbook of self and identity (s. 47-67). New York: The Guilford Press.
Silvia, P. J. i Duval, T. S. (2001). Objective self-awareness theory: Recent progress and enduring problems. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 230-241.
Strauman, T. J. (1996). Stability within the self: A longitudinal study of the structural implications of self-discrepancy theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1142-1153.
Strauman, T. J., Kolden, G. G., Stromquist, V., Davis, N., Kwapil, L., Heerey E. i Schneider, K. (2001). The effects of treatments for depression on perceived failure in self-regulation. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 693-712.
Strauss, R. i Goldberg, W. A. (1999). Self and possible selves during the transition to fatherhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 244-259.
Styła, R. (2012). Change in self-concept differentiation after psychotherapy and its relation to psychological maladjustment. Psychological Reports, 110, 397-402.
Styła, R., Jędrasik-Styła, M. i Krawczyk, K. (w przygotowaniu). Does the self-concept clarity change after psychotherapy? How is it related to psychological maladjustment?
Suchańska, A. i Worach, A. (2013). Złożoność koncepcji siebie a poczucie tożsamości. Roczniki Psychologiczne, 16(2), 199-215.
Truax, Ch. B., Schuldt, W. J. i Wargo, D. G. (1968). Self-ideal concept congruence and improvement in group psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 32, 47-53.
Vallacher, R. R. i Nowak, A. (2004). Krajobrazy autorefleksji: mapowanie szczytów i dolin oszacowań własnej osoby. W: A. Tesser, R. B. Felson i J. M. Suls (red.), Ja i tożsamość (s. 43-69). Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Wollfolk, R. L., Novalany, J., Gara, M. A., Allen, L. A. i Polino, M. (1995). Self-complexity, self- -evaluation, and depression: An examination of form and content within the self-schema. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 1108-1120.
Bąk, W. i Gołębiowska, N. (2012). Stabilna struktura niestabilnych treści. Stałość i zmienność w samowiedzy. Plakat prezentowany na IX Zjeździe Polskiego Stowarzyszenia Psychologii Społecznej, Sopot.
Campbell, J. D., Assananad, S. i Di Paula, A. (2003). The structure of self-concept and its relation to psychological adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71, 115-140.
Campbell, J. D., Assananad, S. i Di Paula, A. (2004). Cechy strukturalne pojęcia Ja a przystosowanie. W: A. Tesser, R. B. Felson i J. M. Suls (red.), Ja i tożsamość (s. 70-88). Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Campbell, J. D., Trapnell, P. D, Heine, S. J., Katz, I. M., Lavallee, L. F. i Lehman, D. R. (1996). Self-concept clarity: Measurement, personality correlates, and cultural boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 141-156.
Carver, C. S. i Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Coats, E. K., Janoff-Bulman, R. i Alpert, N. (1996). Approach versus avoidance goals: Differences in self-evaluation and well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1057-1067.
Drożdżowicz, L. (2000). Struktura „Ja” w schizofrenii. Psychoterapia, 115(4), 21-34.
Dunkel, C. S., Kelts, D. i Coon, B. (2006). Possible selves as mechanisms of change in therapy. W: C. Dunkel i J. Kerpelman (red.), Possible selves. Theory, research and applications (s. 187-204). New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Duval, T. S. i Lalwani, N. (1999). Objective self-awareness and causal attributions for self- -standard discrepancies: Changing self or changing standards of correctness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1220-1229.
Duval, T. S. i Wicklund, R. A. (1972). A theory of objective self-awareness. New York: Academic Press.
Elliott, K. L. (2008). The relation of self-discrepancy to anxiety and depression as psychotherapy change measures. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 68(9-B), 6301.
Erikson, M. G. (2007). The meaning of the future: Toward a more specific definition of possible selves. Review of General Psychology, 11, 348-358.
Frazier, L. D., Hooker, K., Johnson, P. M. i Kaus, C. R. (2000). Continuity and change in possible selves in later life: A 5-year longitudinal study. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 22, 237-243.
Gara, M. A., Woolfolk, R. L., Cohen, B. D., Goldston, R. B., Allen, L. A. i Novalany, J. (1993). Perception of self and other in major depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 93-100.
Grzesiuk, L. (red.) (2005). Psychoterapia. Teoria. Warszawa: Eneteia.
Harter, S. (1996). Historical roots of contemporary issues involving self-concept. W: B. A. Bracken (red.), Handbook of self-concept. Developmental, social, and clinical considerations (s. 1-37). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.
Hoyle, R. H. i Sherrill, M. R. (2006). Future orientation in the self-system: Possible selves, self- -regulation, and behavior. Journal of Personality, 74, 1673-1696.
Huflejt-Łukasik, M. (2010). Ja i procesy samoregulacji: różnice między zdrowiem a zaburzeniami psychicznymi. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar.
James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. New York: Holt.
Kinderman, P., Prince, S., Waller, G. i Peters, E. (2003). Self-discrepancies, attentional bias and persecutory delusions. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 1-12.
Leary, M. R. i Tangney, J. P. (2003). The self as an organizing construct in the behavioral and social sciences. W: M. R. Leary i J. P. Tangney (red.), Handbook of self and identity (s. 3-14). New York: The Guilford Press.
Linville, P. W. (1985). Self-complexity and affective extremity: Don’t put all of your eggs in one cognitive basket. Social Cognition, 1, 94-120.
Linville, P. W. (1987). Self-complexity as a cognitive buffer against stress-related illness and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 663-676.
Markus, H. (1977). Self-schemata and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 63-78.
Markus, H. i Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954-969.
Markus, H. i Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 299-337.
Marsh, H. W. i Ayotte, V. (2003). Do multiple dimensions of self-concept become more differentiated with age? The differential distinctiveness hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 687-706.
Morgan, H. J. i Janoff-Bulmann, R. (1994). Positive and negative self-complexity: Patterns of adjustment following traumatic versus non-traumatic life experience. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13, 63-85.
Niemiec, M. (2012). Pozytywne i negatywne standardy Ja a działania podejmowane w celu ich osiągnięcia oraz dobrostan psychiczny osoby. Niepublikowana praca magisterska. Uniwersytet Warszawski, Wydział Psychologii, Warszawa.
Oyserman, D. i Markus, H. R. (1990). Possible selves and delinquency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 12-125.
Pelham, B. W. (1991). On the benefits of misery: Self-serving biases in the depressive self- -concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 670-681.
Pemberton, E. D. (2009). The relationship between self-discrepancy, depression severity, and psychotherapy treatment in depressed older adults. Dissertation Abstracts International. Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 69(8-B), 5047.
Phillips, E. L., Raiford, A. i El-Batrawi, S. (1965). The Q sort reevaluated. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 29, 422-425.
Poon, W.-T. i Lau, S. (1999). Coping with failure: Relationship with self-concept discrepancy and attributional style. The Journal of Social Psychology, 139, 639-653.
Prochaska, J. O. i Norcross, J. C. (2006). Systemy psychoterapeutyczne. Analiza transteoretyczna. Warszawa: Instytut Psychologii Zdrowia PTP.
Rakowska, J. M. (2006). Sukces i porażka terapii krótkoterminowej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar.
Roepke, S., Schröder-Abé, M., Schütz, A., Jacob, G., Dams, A., Vater, A., Rüter, A., Merkl A., Heuser I. i Lammers C. H. (2011). Dialectic behavioural therapy has an impact on self- -concept clarity and facets of self-esteem in women with borderline personality disorder. Clin-ical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 18, 148-158.
Rogers, C. (1984). Teoria terapii osobowości i relacji interpersonalnych rozwinięta w oparciu o podejście skoncentrowane na kliencie. Nowiny Psychologiczne, 2-3, 1-91.
Showers, C. J. (1992). Evaluative integrative thinking about characteristics of the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 719-729.
Showers, C. J., Abramson, L. Y. i Hogan, M. E. (1998). The dynamic self: How the content and structure of the self-concept change with mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 478-493.
Showers, C. J. i Kling, K. C. (1996). Organization of self-knowledge: Implications for recovery from sad mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 578-590.
Showers, C. J. i Zeigler-Hill, V. (2003). Organization of self-knowledge: Features, functions, and flexibility. W: M. R. Leary i J. P. Tangney (red.), Handbook of self and identity (s. 47-67). New York: The Guilford Press.
Silvia, P. J. i Duval, T. S. (2001). Objective self-awareness theory: Recent progress and enduring problems. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 230-241.
Strauman, T. J. (1996). Stability within the self: A longitudinal study of the structural implications of self-discrepancy theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1142-1153.
Strauman, T. J., Kolden, G. G., Stromquist, V., Davis, N., Kwapil, L., Heerey E. i Schneider, K. (2001). The effects of treatments for depression on perceived failure in self-regulation. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 693-712.
Strauss, R. i Goldberg, W. A. (1999). Self and possible selves during the transition to fatherhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 244-259.
Styła, R. (2012). Change in self-concept differentiation after psychotherapy and its relation to psychological maladjustment. Psychological Reports, 110, 397-402.
Styła, R., Jędrasik-Styła, M. i Krawczyk, K. (w przygotowaniu). Does the self-concept clarity change after psychotherapy? How is it related to psychological maladjustment?
Suchańska, A. i Worach, A. (2013). Złożoność koncepcji siebie a poczucie tożsamości. Roczniki Psychologiczne, 16(2), 199-215.
Truax, Ch. B., Schuldt, W. J. i Wargo, D. G. (1968). Self-ideal concept congruence and improvement in group psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 32, 47-53.
Vallacher, R. R. i Nowak, A. (2004). Krajobrazy autorefleksji: mapowanie szczytów i dolin oszacowań własnej osoby. W: A. Tesser, R. B. Felson i J. M. Suls (red.), Ja i tożsamość (s. 43-69). Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Wollfolk, R. L., Novalany, J., Gara, M. A., Allen, L. A. i Polino, M. (1995). Self-complexity, self- -evaluation, and depression: An examination of form and content within the self-schema. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 1108-1120.
Published
2019-04-05
Issue
Section
Articles
Copyright (c) 2015 Roczniki Psychologiczne
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
