Correcting emotions in psychotherapy
Keywords:
emotions; emotion regulation; emotional traits; psychotherapy; therapeutic techniques
Abstract
The aim of the article is to discuss the assumptions regarding the principles of working with emotions in psychotherapy in the light of contemporary knowledge about emotions. In the first part, we present the basic concepts and assumptions about emotions developed in the field of psychology, which suggest that emotional problems may result not only from insufficient regulation of emotions but also from incorrectly formed emotional traits. The second part of the article presents a review of studies indicating the limitations of the scope of application of traditional techniques, whose aim is to influence the course of emotions so that they are more conscious and more easily expressed or inhibited. In the third part, the assumptions on changing emotional traits during the therapeutic process are discussed and the possible mechanisms that can be used to build interventions aimed at modifying emotional traits are pointed out.
References
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Baikie, K. A. i Wilhelm, K. (2005). Emotional and physical health benefits of expressive writing. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 11, 338-346.
Batten, S. V., Follette, V. M., Rasmussen-Hall, M. L. i Palm, K. M. (2002). Physical and psychological effects of written disclosure among sexual abuse survivors. Behavior Therapy, 33, 107-122.
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Bonanno, G. A. i Keltner, D. (1997). Facial expressions of emotion and the course of conjugal bereavement. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 126-137.
Bonanno, G. A., Keltner, D., Holen, A. i Horowitz, M. J. (1995). When avoiding unpleasant emotions might not be such a bad thing: Verbal-autonomic response dissociation and midlife conjugal bereavement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 975-989.
Bushman, B. J. (2002). Does venting anger feed or extinguish the flame? Catharsis, rumination, distraction, anger, and aggressive responding. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 724-731.
Clore, G. L. i Robinson, M. D. (2012). Five new ideas about emotion and their implications for social-personality psychology. W: K. Deaux i M. Snyder (red.), Oxford handbook of personality and social psychology (s. 315-336). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Consedine, N., Magai, C. i Bonanno, G. A. (2002). Moderators of the emotion inhibition-health relationship: A review and research agenda. Review of General Psychology, 6, 204-238.
Czabała, J. C. (2008). Czynniki leczące w psychoterapii. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Damasio, A. R. (1999). Błąd Kartezjusza. Emocje, rozum i ludzki mózg. Poznań: Dom Wydawniczy Rebis.
Devilly, G. J., Gist, R. i Cotton, P. (2006). Ready! Fire! Aim! The status of psychological debriefing and therapeutic interventions: In the work place and after disasters. Review of General Psychology, 10, 318-345.
Doerr, C. E. i Baumeister, R. F. (2010). Self-regulatory strength and psychological adjustment: Implications of the limited resource model of self-regulation. W: J. Maddux i J. Tang- ney (red.), Social psychological foundations of clinical psychology (s. 71-83). New York: Guilford.
Frijda, N. H. (2005). Emotion experience. Cognition and Emotion, 4, 473-497.
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Greenberg, L. S. i Safran, J. (1989). Emotion in psychotherapy. American Psychologist, 1, 19-29.
Hermans, D., Baeyens, F. i Vervliet, B. (2013). Generalization of acquired emotional response. W: D. M. Robinson, E. R. Watkins i E. Harmon-Jones (red.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (s. 117-134). New York: The Guilford Press.
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Johnson-Laird, P. N. i Oatley, K. (2005). Poznawcza i społeczna konstrukcja w emocjach. W: M. Lewis i J. M. Haviland-Jones (red.), Psychologia emocji (s. 576-597). Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Kennedy-Moore, E. i Watson, J. C. (2001). How and when does emotional expression help? Review of General Psychology, 5, 187-212.
Kreitler, S. (1999). Denial in cancer patients. Cancer Investigation, 17, 514-534.
Larsen, J. T. i McGraw, A. P. (2011). Further evidence for mixed emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 1095-1110.
Lohr, J. M., Olatunji, B. O., Baumeister, R. F. i Bushman, B. J. (2007). The psychology of anger venting and empirically supported alternatives that do no harm. The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice, 5(1), 53-64.
Lyubomirsky, S., Sousa, L. i Dickerhoof, R. (2006). The costs and benefits of writing, talking, and thinking about life’s triumphs and defeats. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 692-708.
Mayou, R. A., Ehlers, A. i Hobbs M., (2000) Psychological debriefing for road traffic accident victims. British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 589-593.
McCraty, R. (2004). The energetic heart: Bioelectromagnetic communication within and between people. W: P. J. Rosch i M. S. Markov (red.), Clinical applications of bioelectromagnetic medicine (s. 541-562). New York: Marcel Dekker.
McNally, R. J., Bryant, R. W. i Ehlers, A. (2003). Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 45-72.
Murray, B. D., Holland A. C. i Kensinger, E. A. (2013). Episodic memory and emotion. W: D. M. Robinson, E. R. Watkins i E. Harmon-Jones (red.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (s. 156-175). New York: The Guilford Press.
Oceja, L. i Carrera, P. (2009). Beyond a single pattern of mixed emotional experience: Sequential, prevalent, inverse and genuine simultaneous. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 1, 58-67.
Parrott, W. G. (1993). Beyond hedonism: Motives for imbibing good moods and for maintaining bad moods. W: D. M. Wegner i J. W. Pennebaker (red.), Handbook of mental control (s. 278-308). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Pennebaker, J. W. (1997). Opening up: The healing power of expressing emotions. New York: The Guilford Press.
Rose, S., Brewin, C., Andrews, A. i Kirk, M. (1999). A randomized controlled trial of psychological debriefing in victims of violent crime. Psychological, 29, 793-799.
Rogers, C. R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationships, as developed in the client-centered framework. W: S. Koch (red.), Psychology: A study of a science (vol. III). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Scherer, K. R. (2000). Emotions as episodes of subsystem synchronization driven by nonlinear appraisal processes. W: M. Lewis i I. Granic (red.), Emotion, development, and self-organization (s. 70-99). New York–Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Scherer, K. R. (2002). Emotion, the psychological structure of emotions. W: N. J. Smelser i P. B. Baltes (red.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (s. 4472-4477). Oxford: Harvard Libraries.
Stroebe, M., Stroebe, W., Schut, H., Zech, E. i van den Bout, J. (2002). Does disclosure of emotions facilitate recovery from bereavement? Evidence from two prospective studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 169-178.
Suri, G., Sheppes, G. i Gross, J. J. (2013). Emotion regulation and cognition. W: D. M. Robinson, E. R. Watkins i E. Harmon-Jones (red.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (s. 195-209). New York: The Guilford Press.
Tangney, J. P. i Salovey, P. (2010). Emotions of the imperiled ego: Shame, guilt, jealousy, and envy. W: J. E. Maddux i J. P. Tangney (red.), Social psychological foundations of clinical psychology (s. 245-271). New York: Guilford Press.
Trzebińska, E. (2009). Afektywny model zaburzeń osobowości. W: E. Trzebińska (red.), Szaleństwo bez utraty rozumu. Z badań nad zaburzeniami osobowości (s. 79-101). Warszawa: SWPS Academica.
Trzebińska, E. (2012). W kierunku nauki o zdrowiu emocjonalnym. W: A. Szuster, D. Maison i D. Karwowska (red.), W stronę podmiotowości (s. 69-84). Sopot: Smak Słowa.
Trzebińska, E. i Gabińska, A. (2009). Przeżywanie uczuć w zaburzeniach osobowości. W: E. Trzebińska (red.), Szaleństwo bez utraty rozumu. Z badań nad zaburzeniami osobowości (s. 144-171). Warszawa: SWPS Academica.
Vohs, K. D. i Baumeister, R. F. (2008). Can satisfaction reinforce wanting?: A new theory about long-term changes in strength motivation. W: J. Y. Shah i W. L. Gardner (red.), Handbook of motivation science (s. 373-391). New York: The Guilford Press.
Watson, D. (2000). Mood and temperament. New York: The Guilford Press.
Winkielman, P. i Kavanagh, L. C. (2013). The embodied perspective on cognition-emotion interaction. W: D. M. Robinson, E. R. Watkins i E. Harmon-Jones (red.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (s. 213-230). New York: The Guilford Press.
Augustine, A. A., Larsen, R. J. i Lee, H. (2013). Affective personality traits and cognition: Interactions between extraversion/neuroticism, affect, and cognition. W: D. M. Robinson, E. R. Watkins i E. Harmon-Jones (red.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (s. 312-328). New York: The Guilford Press.
Baikie, K. A. i Wilhelm, K. (2005). Emotional and physical health benefits of expressive writing. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 11, 338-346.
Batten, S. V., Follette, V. M., Rasmussen-Hall, M. L. i Palm, K. M. (2002). Physical and psychological effects of written disclosure among sexual abuse survivors. Behavior Therapy, 33, 107-122.
Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Vohs, K. D. i Alquist, J. L. (2010). Does emotion cause behavior (apart from making people do stupid, destructive things)? W: C. Agnew, D. Carlson, W. Graziano i J. Kelly (red.), Then a miracle occurs: Focusing on behavior in social psychological theory and research (s. 119-136). New York: Oxford University Press.
Bisson, J., Jenkins, P. L., Alexander, J. i Bannister, C. (1997). Randomized controlled trial of psychological debriefing for victims of burn trauma. British Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 78-81.
Bonanno, G. A. i Keltner, D. (1997). Facial expressions of emotion and the course of conjugal bereavement. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 126-137.
Bonanno, G. A., Keltner, D., Holen, A. i Horowitz, M. J. (1995). When avoiding unpleasant emotions might not be such a bad thing: Verbal-autonomic response dissociation and midlife conjugal bereavement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 975-989.
Bushman, B. J. (2002). Does venting anger feed or extinguish the flame? Catharsis, rumination, distraction, anger, and aggressive responding. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 724-731.
Clore, G. L. i Robinson, M. D. (2012). Five new ideas about emotion and their implications for social-personality psychology. W: K. Deaux i M. Snyder (red.), Oxford handbook of personality and social psychology (s. 315-336). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Consedine, N., Magai, C. i Bonanno, G. A. (2002). Moderators of the emotion inhibition-health relationship: A review and research agenda. Review of General Psychology, 6, 204-238.
Czabała, J. C. (2008). Czynniki leczące w psychoterapii. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Damasio, A. R. (1999). Błąd Kartezjusza. Emocje, rozum i ludzki mózg. Poznań: Dom Wydawniczy Rebis.
Devilly, G. J., Gist, R. i Cotton, P. (2006). Ready! Fire! Aim! The status of psychological debriefing and therapeutic interventions: In the work place and after disasters. Review of General Psychology, 10, 318-345.
Doerr, C. E. i Baumeister, R. F. (2010). Self-regulatory strength and psychological adjustment: Implications of the limited resource model of self-regulation. W: J. Maddux i J. Tang- ney (red.), Social psychological foundations of clinical psychology (s. 71-83). New York: Guilford.
Frijda, N. H. (2005). Emotion experience. Cognition and Emotion, 4, 473-497.
Frijda, N. H. (2008). The psychologists’ point of view. W: M. Lewis, J. N. Haviland-Jones i L. F. Barrett (red.), Handbook of emotions (s. 68-87). New York: The Guilford Press.
Greenberg, L. S. (1991). Research on the process of change. Psychotherapy Research, 1, 14-24.
Greenberg, L. S. (2013). Cognition, emotion and the construction of meaning. W: D. M. Robinson, E. R. Watkins i E. Harmon-Jones (red.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (s. 521-539). New York: The Guilford Press.
Greenberg, L. S. i Safran, J. (1989). Emotion in psychotherapy. American Psychologist, 1, 19-29.
Hermans, D., Baeyens, F. i Vervliet, B. (2013). Generalization of acquired emotional response. W: D. M. Robinson, E. R. Watkins i E. Harmon-Jones (red.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (s. 117-134). New York: The Guilford Press.
Izard, C. E. (1992). Basic emotions, relations among emotions and emotion-cognition relations. Psychological Review, 3, 561-565.
Johnson-Laird, P. N. i Oatley, K. (2005). Poznawcza i społeczna konstrukcja w emocjach. W: M. Lewis i J. M. Haviland-Jones (red.), Psychologia emocji (s. 576-597). Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Kennedy-Moore, E. i Watson, J. C. (2001). How and when does emotional expression help? Review of General Psychology, 5, 187-212.
Kreitler, S. (1999). Denial in cancer patients. Cancer Investigation, 17, 514-534.
Larsen, J. T. i McGraw, A. P. (2011). Further evidence for mixed emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 1095-1110.
Lohr, J. M., Olatunji, B. O., Baumeister, R. F. i Bushman, B. J. (2007). The psychology of anger venting and empirically supported alternatives that do no harm. The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice, 5(1), 53-64.
Lyubomirsky, S., Sousa, L. i Dickerhoof, R. (2006). The costs and benefits of writing, talking, and thinking about life’s triumphs and defeats. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 692-708.
Mayou, R. A., Ehlers, A. i Hobbs M., (2000) Psychological debriefing for road traffic accident victims. British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 589-593.
McCraty, R. (2004). The energetic heart: Bioelectromagnetic communication within and between people. W: P. J. Rosch i M. S. Markov (red.), Clinical applications of bioelectromagnetic medicine (s. 541-562). New York: Marcel Dekker.
McNally, R. J., Bryant, R. W. i Ehlers, A. (2003). Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 45-72.
Murray, B. D., Holland A. C. i Kensinger, E. A. (2013). Episodic memory and emotion. W: D. M. Robinson, E. R. Watkins i E. Harmon-Jones (red.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (s. 156-175). New York: The Guilford Press.
Oceja, L. i Carrera, P. (2009). Beyond a single pattern of mixed emotional experience: Sequential, prevalent, inverse and genuine simultaneous. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 1, 58-67.
Parrott, W. G. (1993). Beyond hedonism: Motives for imbibing good moods and for maintaining bad moods. W: D. M. Wegner i J. W. Pennebaker (red.), Handbook of mental control (s. 278-308). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Pennebaker, J. W. (1997). Opening up: The healing power of expressing emotions. New York: The Guilford Press.
Rose, S., Brewin, C., Andrews, A. i Kirk, M. (1999). A randomized controlled trial of psychological debriefing in victims of violent crime. Psychological, 29, 793-799.
Rogers, C. R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationships, as developed in the client-centered framework. W: S. Koch (red.), Psychology: A study of a science (vol. III). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Scherer, K. R. (2000). Emotions as episodes of subsystem synchronization driven by nonlinear appraisal processes. W: M. Lewis i I. Granic (red.), Emotion, development, and self-organization (s. 70-99). New York–Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Scherer, K. R. (2002). Emotion, the psychological structure of emotions. W: N. J. Smelser i P. B. Baltes (red.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (s. 4472-4477). Oxford: Harvard Libraries.
Stroebe, M., Stroebe, W., Schut, H., Zech, E. i van den Bout, J. (2002). Does disclosure of emotions facilitate recovery from bereavement? Evidence from two prospective studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 169-178.
Suri, G., Sheppes, G. i Gross, J. J. (2013). Emotion regulation and cognition. W: D. M. Robinson, E. R. Watkins i E. Harmon-Jones (red.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (s. 195-209). New York: The Guilford Press.
Tangney, J. P. i Salovey, P. (2010). Emotions of the imperiled ego: Shame, guilt, jealousy, and envy. W: J. E. Maddux i J. P. Tangney (red.), Social psychological foundations of clinical psychology (s. 245-271). New York: Guilford Press.
Trzebińska, E. (2009). Afektywny model zaburzeń osobowości. W: E. Trzebińska (red.), Szaleństwo bez utraty rozumu. Z badań nad zaburzeniami osobowości (s. 79-101). Warszawa: SWPS Academica.
Trzebińska, E. (2012). W kierunku nauki o zdrowiu emocjonalnym. W: A. Szuster, D. Maison i D. Karwowska (red.), W stronę podmiotowości (s. 69-84). Sopot: Smak Słowa.
Trzebińska, E. i Gabińska, A. (2009). Przeżywanie uczuć w zaburzeniach osobowości. W: E. Trzebińska (red.), Szaleństwo bez utraty rozumu. Z badań nad zaburzeniami osobowości (s. 144-171). Warszawa: SWPS Academica.
Vohs, K. D. i Baumeister, R. F. (2008). Can satisfaction reinforce wanting?: A new theory about long-term changes in strength motivation. W: J. Y. Shah i W. L. Gardner (red.), Handbook of motivation science (s. 373-391). New York: The Guilford Press.
Watson, D. (2000). Mood and temperament. New York: The Guilford Press.
Winkielman, P. i Kavanagh, L. C. (2013). The embodied perspective on cognition-emotion interaction. W: D. M. Robinson, E. R. Watkins i E. Harmon-Jones (red.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (s. 213-230). New York: The Guilford Press.
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