Wpływ efektu kameleona na stereotypizację wobec osób niewierzących
Abstract
W artykule podjęta została próba zweryfikowania, czy efekt kameleona może być skuteczną metodą zmiany stereotypów. Dotychczas wykazano, że naśladownictwo zachowań niewerbalnych prowadzi do wzrostu pozytywnego nastawienia, zwiększa chęć niesienia pomocy nie tylko naśladowcy, ale i innym ludziom, jest skutecznym narzędziem wpływu społecznego, a osoby koordynujące swe zachowania zaczynają w konsekwencji działać kooperacyjnie. W prezentowanym badaniu, prowadzonym w warunkach naturalnych, podjęto pilotażową próbę zastosowania efektu kameleona w zmianie stereotypu na bardziej pozytywny: percepcji (przez osoby deklarujące się jako wierzące) osób niewierzących. Uzyskane wyniki świadczą o tym, że choć mimikra pozytywnie wpływa na poprawę percepcji stereotypizowanej grupy, to obszar zmiany jest fragmentaryczny. Oznacza to, że – z pewnymi zastrzeżeniami – mechanizm ten może być skutecznie stosowany w obszarze zmiany stereotypów i uprzedzeń. Z tej racji, iż jest to jedno z pierwszych badań w tym obszarze, konieczne są dalsze prace wskazujące zakres stosowalności i ograniczenia, które omówiono w końcowej części artykułu.
References
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Amir, Y. (1969). Contact hypothesis in ethnic relations. Psychological Bulletin, 71, 319-342.
Amir, Y. (1976). The role of intergroup contact in change of prejudice and ethnic relations. In P. A. Katz (Ed.), Towards the elimination of racism (pp. 245-308). New York: Pergamon.
Bilewicz, M., Ostolski, A., Wójcik, A., & Wysocka, A. (2004). Pamięć w kontekście międzyetnicznym: „trudne pytania” w kontaktach młodych Polaków i Żydów. Kultura i Społeczeństwo, 3, 143-158 .
Bond, Ch. F., DiCandia, C. G., & MacKinnon, J. R. (1988). Responses to violence in a psychiatric setting: The role of patient’s race. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 448-458.
Brown, R. J. (2000). Group processes: Dynamics within and between groups (2th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
Brewer, M. B., & Miller, N. (1984). Beyond the contact hypothesis: Theoretical perspectives on desegregation. In N. Miller, & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact: The psychology of desegregation (pp. 281-302). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Castelli, L., Pavan, G., Ferrari, E., & Kashima, Y. (2009). The stereotyper and the chameleon: The effects of stereotype use on perceivers’ mimicry. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 2-21.
Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception-behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 893-910.
Cook, S. W. (1962). The systematic analysis of socially significant events: A strategy for social research. Journal of Social Issues, 18, 66-84.
De Houwer, J. (2011). Evaluative conditioning: A review of functional knowledge and mental process theories. In T. R. Schachtman, & S. Reilly (Eds.), Associative of learning and conditioning theory. Human and non-human applications (pp. 399-416). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 708-724.
Hewstone, M., & Brown, R. J. (1986). Contact is not enough: An intergroup perspective on the “contact hypothesis.” In M. Hewstone, & R. J. Brown (Eds.), Contact and conflict in intergroup encounters (pp. 1-44). Oxford: Blackwell.
Huntsinger, J. R., Sinclair S., Dunn E., & Clore G. L. (2010). Affective regulation of stereotype activation: It’s the (accessible) thought that counts. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 564-577.
Inzlicht, M., Gutsell, J. N., & Legault, L. (2012). Mimicry reduces racial prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 361-365.
Isen, A. M., Doubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122-1131.
Jarymowicz, M. (2001). W poszukiwaniu przesłanek sztywności stereotypów. In M. Kofta, & A. Jasińska-Kania (Eds.), Stereotypy i uprzedzenia. Uwarunkowania psychologiczne i kulturowe (pp. 26-43). Warsaw: Scholar.
Kenrick, D., Neuberg, S., & Cialdini, R. (2002). Psychologia społeczna. Rozwiązane tajemnice. Sopot: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Kurcz, I. (1994). Zmienność i nieuchronność stereotypów. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Psychologii PAN.
Lambert, A. J., Khan, S. R., Lickel, B. A., & Fricke, K. (1997). Mood and the correction of positive versus negative stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1002-1016.
Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: Macmillan.
Leander, N. P., Chartrand, T. L., & Wood, W. (2011). Mind your mannerisms: Eliciting stereotype conformity through behavioral mimicry. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 195-201.
Miller, N., Brewer, M., & Edwards, K. (1985). Cooperative interaction in desegregated settings: A laboratory analogue. Journal of Social Issues, 41, 63-79.
Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Urbana: Universitate Illonis Press.
Park, J., & Banaji, M. R. (2000). Mood and heuristics: The influence of happy and sad states on sensitivity and bias in stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 1005-1023.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup conflict theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 65-85.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2000). Does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Recent metaanalytic findings. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination: The Claremont symposium (pp. 93-114). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Sherif, M. (1966). Group conflict and cooperation: Their social psychology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Stanley, D., Phelps, E., & Banaji, M. (2008). The neural basis of implicit attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 164-170.
Stephan, W. G., Renfro, C. L., Esses, V. M., Stephan, C. W., & Martin, T. (2005). The effect of feeling threatened on attitudes toward immigrants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 1-19.
Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1984). The role of ignorance in intergroup relations. In N. Miller, & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact (pp. 229-255). New York: Academic Press.
Tanner, R. J., Ferraro, R., Chartrand, T. J., Bettman, J. R., & van Baaren, R. (2007). Of chameleons and consumption: The impact of mimicry on choice and preferences. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 754-766.
Wolsko, C., Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Bachelor, J. (2003). Intergroup contact: Effects on group evaluations and perceived variability. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6, 93-110.
Van Baaren, R. B., Holland, R. W., Kawakami, K., & van Knippenberg, A. (2004). Mimicry and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science, 15, 71-74.
Voci, A., & Hewstone, M. (2003). Intergroup contact and prejudice towards immigrants in Italy: The mediatonal role of anxiety and the moderational role of group salience. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6, 37-54.
Zanna, M. (1994). On the nature of prejudice. Canadian Psychology, 35, 11-23.
Amir, Y. (1969). Contact hypothesis in ethnic relations. Psychological Bulletin, 71, 319-342.
Amir, Y. (1976). The role of intergroup contact in change of prejudice and ethnic relations. In P. A. Katz (Ed.), Towards the elimination of racism (pp. 245-308). New York: Pergamon.
Bilewicz, M., Ostolski, A., Wójcik, A., & Wysocka, A. (2004). Pamięć w kontekście międzyetnicznym: „trudne pytania” w kontaktach młodych Polaków i Żydów. Kultura i Społeczeństwo, 3, 143-158 .
Bond, Ch. F., DiCandia, C. G., & MacKinnon, J. R. (1988). Responses to violence in a psychiatric setting: The role of patient’s race. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 448-458.
Brown, R. J. (2000). Group processes: Dynamics within and between groups (2th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
Brewer, M. B., & Miller, N. (1984). Beyond the contact hypothesis: Theoretical perspectives on desegregation. In N. Miller, & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact: The psychology of desegregation (pp. 281-302). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Castelli, L., Pavan, G., Ferrari, E., & Kashima, Y. (2009). The stereotyper and the chameleon: The effects of stereotype use on perceivers’ mimicry. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 2-21.
Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception-behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 893-910.
Cook, S. W. (1962). The systematic analysis of socially significant events: A strategy for social research. Journal of Social Issues, 18, 66-84.
De Houwer, J. (2011). Evaluative conditioning: A review of functional knowledge and mental process theories. In T. R. Schachtman, & S. Reilly (Eds.), Associative of learning and conditioning theory. Human and non-human applications (pp. 399-416). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2008). New directions in aversive racism research: Persistence and pervasiveness. In C. Willis-Esqueda (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Vol. 52: Motivational aspects of prejudice and racism (pp. 43-67). New York: Springer.
Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 708-724.
Hewstone, M., & Brown, R. J. (1986). Contact is not enough: An intergroup perspective on the “contact hypothesis.” In M. Hewstone, & R. J. Brown (Eds.), Contact and conflict in intergroup encounters (pp. 1-44). Oxford: Blackwell.
Huntsinger, J. R., Sinclair S., Dunn E., & Clore G. L. (2010). Affective regulation of stereotype activation: It’s the (accessible) thought that counts. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 564-577.
Inzlicht, M., Gutsell, J. N., & Legault, L. (2012). Mimicry reduces racial prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 361-365.
Isen, A. M., Doubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122-1131.
Jarymowicz, M. (2001). W poszukiwaniu przesłanek sztywności stereotypów. In M. Kofta, & A. Jasińska-Kania (Eds.), Stereotypy i uprzedzenia. Uwarunkowania psychologiczne i kulturowe (pp. 26-43). Warsaw: Scholar.
Kenrick, D., Neuberg, S., & Cialdini, R. (2002). Psychologia społeczna. Rozwiązane tajemnice. Sopot: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Kurcz, I. (1994). Zmienność i nieuchronność stereotypów. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Psychologii PAN.
Lambert, A. J., Khan, S. R., Lickel, B. A., & Fricke, K. (1997). Mood and the correction of positive versus negative stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1002-1016.
Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: Macmillan.
Leander, N. P., Chartrand, T. L., & Wood, W. (2011). Mind your mannerisms: Eliciting stereotype conformity through behavioral mimicry. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 195-201.
Miller, N., Brewer, M., & Edwards, K. (1985). Cooperative interaction in desegregated settings: A laboratory analogue. Journal of Social Issues, 41, 63-79.
Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Urbana: Universitate Illonis Press.
Park, J., & Banaji, M. R. (2000). Mood and heuristics: The influence of happy and sad states on sensitivity and bias in stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 1005-1023.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup conflict theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 65-85.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2000). Does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Recent metaanalytic findings. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination: The Claremont symposium (pp. 93-114). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Sherif, M. (1966). Group conflict and cooperation: Their social psychology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Stanley, D., Phelps, E., & Banaji, M. (2008). The neural basis of implicit attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 164-170.
Stephan, W. G., Renfro, C. L., Esses, V. M., Stephan, C. W., & Martin, T. (2005). The effect of feeling threatened on attitudes toward immigrants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 1-19.
Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1984). The role of ignorance in intergroup relations. In N. Miller, & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact (pp. 229-255). New York: Academic Press.
Tanner, R. J., Ferraro, R., Chartrand, T. J., Bettman, J. R., & van Baaren, R. (2007). Of chameleons and consumption: The impact of mimicry on choice and preferences. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 754-766.
Wolsko, C., Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Bachelor, J. (2003). Intergroup contact: Effects on group evaluations and perceived variability. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6, 93-110.
Van Baaren, R. B., Holland, R. W., Kawakami, K., & van Knippenberg, A. (2004). Mimicry and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science, 15, 71-74.
Voci, A., & Hewstone, M. (2003). Intergroup contact and prejudice towards immigrants in Italy: The mediatonal role of anxiety and the moderational role of group salience. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6, 37-54.
Zanna, M. (1994). On the nature of prejudice. Canadian Psychology, 35, 11-23.
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