The noetic perspective and information processing
Keywords:
noetic perspective; cognitive representation; information processing; lexical decision task
Abstract
The aim of the present research was to investigate the cognitive representations of the noetic perspective (spirituality) and the influence of the activation of these representations on information processing. The article presents the results of three experiments on groups of students (N = 186), using the lexical decision task (LDT) paradigm. In two of these experiments the depth of information processing was also measured by a memory test. The typical result for LDT procedure was not confirmed – the noetic perspective did not cause faster recognition of words related to this perspective. However, the activation of the noetic perspective in the condition of activated attention manifested itself in a better memory of noetic words and in the transfer of positive affect to related noetic objects.
References
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Astin, J. (1997). Stress reduction through mindfulness meditation: Effects on psychological symptomatology, sense of control, and spiritual experiences. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 66, 97-106.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1-26.
Baldwin, M. W. (1992). Relational schema and the processing of social information. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 461-484.
Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., Lee-Chai, A., Barbdollar, K., & Trotschel, R. (2001). The automated will. Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1014-1027.
Boski, P. (2009). Kulturowe ramy zachowań społecznych. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Christianson, S.-A. (1992). Emotional stress and eyewitness memory: A critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 112(2), 284-309.
Collins, A. M., & Quillian, M. R. (1969). Retrieval time from semantic memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 240-247.
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Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82, 407-428.
Constantine, R., McNally, R., & Horning, C. (2001). Snake fear and the pictorial emotional Stroop paradigm. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 757-764.
Craik, F. I. M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 268-294.
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.
Eliade, M. (1999). Sacrum i profanum. O istocie religijności. Warsaw: KR.
Emmons, R. A. (1999). Religion in the psychology of personality: An introduction. Journal of Personality, 67, 873-888.
Fallot, R. D. (1998). Spirituality and religion in recovery from mental illness. New Directions for Mental Health Services, 80, 1-105.
Ferguson, M. J., & Bargh, J. A. (2004). Liking is for doing: The effects of goal pursuit on automatic evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(5), 557-572.
Frankl, V. E. (1978). Nieuświadomiony Bóg. Warsaw: PAX.
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Hill, P. C., Pargament, K. I., Hood, R. W., McCullough, M. E., Swyers, J. P., Larson, D. B., & Zinbauer, B. J. (2000). Conteptualizing religion and spirituality: Points of commonality, points of departure. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 30, 51-57.
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Just, M. A., Keller, T. A., & Cynkar, J. A. (2008). A decrease in brain activation associated with driving when listening to someone speak. Brain Research, 1205, 70-80.
Klatzky, R. L., & Ryan, A. S. (1978). Category – structure effects in picture comparisons. Perception & Psychophysics, 23, 193-204.
Koenig, H. G., McCullough, M. E., & Larson, D. B. (2001). Handbook of religion and health. New York: Oxford University Press.
LaBar, K. S., & Phelps, E. A. (1998). Arousal-mediated memory consolidation: Role of the medial temporal lobe in humans. Psychological Science, 9, 490-493.
Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1999). International Affective Picture System (IAPS): Technical manual and affective ratings. University of Florida, Center for Research in Psychophysiology: Gainesville.
Lepore, L., & Brown, R. (2002). The role of awareness: Divergent automatic stereotype activation and implicit judgment correction. Social Cognition, 20, 321-351.
MacDonald, D. A. (2000). Spirituality: Description, measurement, and relation to the Five Factor model of personality. Journal of Personality, 68, 153-198.
Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., Jewell, T., Swank, A. B., Scott, E., Emery, E., & Rye, M. (1999). Marriage and the spiritual realm: The role of proximal and distal religious constructs in marital functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 321-338.
Martijn, C., Alberts, H. J. E. M., Merckelbach, H., Havermans, R., Huijts, A., & De Vries, N. K. (2007). Overcoming ego-depletion: The influence of exemplar priming on self-control performance. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 231-238.
Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
McIntosh, D. N. (1995). Religion as schema, with implications for the relation between religion and doping. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 5, 1-16.
Meier, B. P., Hauser, D. J., Robinson, M. D., Friesen, C. K., & Schjeldahl, K. (2007). What’s “up” with God? Vertical space as a representation of the divine. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 699-710.
Meyer, D. E., & Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1971). Facilitation in recognizing pairs of words: Evidence of dependence between retrieval operations. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 90, 227-234.
Miller, W. R., & Thoresen, C. E. (2003). Spirituality, religion and health: An emerging research field. American Psychologist, 58, 24-35.
Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1977). Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 519-533.
Moors, A., & De Houwer, J. (2006). Automaticity: A theoretical and conceptual analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 297-326.
Najder, K. (1997). Schematy poznawcze. In M. Materska, & T. Tyszka (Eds.), Psychologia i poznanie (pp. 38-60). Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Nęcka, E., Orzechowski, J., & Szymura, B. (2006). Psychologia poznawcza. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Ozorak, E. W. (1997). In the eye of the beholder: A social cognitive model of religious belief. In B. Spilka, & D. N. McIntosh (Eds.), The psychology of religion: Theoretical approaches (pp. 194-203). Boulder: Westview Press.
Pichon, I., Boccato, G., & Saroglou, V. (2007). Nonconscious influences of religion on prosociality: A priming study. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 1032-1045.
Piedmont, R. L. (1999). Does spirituality represents the sixth factor of personality? Spiritual transcendence and the Five-Factor Model. Journal of Personality, 67, 985-1013.
Piedmont, R. L. (2001). Spiritual transcendence and the scientific study of spirituality. Journal of Rehabilitation, 67, 4-14.
Piedmont, R. L. (2007). Cross-cultural generalizability of the Spiritual Transcendence Scale to the Philippines: Spirituality as a human universal. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 10, 89-107.
Piedmont, R. L. (2010). Assessment of Spirituality and Religious Sentiments (ASPIRES), Technical Manual (2nd ed.). Timonium, MD: Author.
Piedmont, R. L., Ciarrochi, J. W., Dy-Liacco, G. S., & Williams, J. E. G. (2009). The empirical and conceptual value of the Spiritual Transcendence and Religious Involvement scales for personality research. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 1, 162-179.
Piedmont, R. L., Kennedy, M. C., Sherman, M. F., Sherman, N. C., & Williams, J. E. G. (2008). A psychometric evaluation of the Assessment of Spirituality and Religious Sentiments (ASPIRES) Scale: Short form. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 19, 163-181.
Piedmont, R. L., & Leach, M. M. (2002). Cross-cultural generalizability of the Spiritual Transcendence Scale in India. American Behavioral Scientist, 45, 1886-1899.
Piedmont, R. L., Werdel, M. B., & Fernando, M. (2009). The utility of the Assessment of Spirituality and Religious Sentiments (ASPIRES) Scale with Christians and Buddhists in Sri Lanka. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 20, 131-143.
Popielski, K. (1994). Noetyczny wymiar osobowości. Psychologiczna analiza poczucia sensu życia. Lublin: Redakcja Wydawnictw KUL.
Popielski, K. (1999). Noopsychomatyka: Propozycja nowego podejścia diagnostyczno-terapeutycznego. Przegląd Psychologiczny, 42(4), 17-41.
Posner, M. I., & Snyder C. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive control. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition: The Loyola Symposium (pp. 55-85). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Randolph-Seng, B., & Nielsen, M. E. (2007). Honesty: One effect of primed religious representations. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 17, 303-315.
Różycka, J., & Skrzypińska, K. (2011). Perspektywa noetyczna w psychologicznym funkcjonowaniu człowieka. Roczniki Psychologiczne, 14(1), 101-121.
Shariff, A. F., & Norenzayan, A. (2007). God is watching you. Priming God concepts increases prosocial behavior in an anonymous economic game. Psychological Science, 18, 803-809.
Socha, P. (Ed.) (2000). Duchowy rozwój człowieka. Cracow: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.
Wachholtz, A. B., & Pargament, K. I. (2008). Migraines and meditation: Does spirituality matter? Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 31, 351-366.
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Alexander, C. N., Rainforth, M. V., & Gelderloos, P. (1991). Transcendental meditation, self actualization, and psychological health: A conceptual overview and statistical meta-analysis. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 6, 189-247.
Astin, J. (1997). Stress reduction through mindfulness meditation: Effects on psychological symptomatology, sense of control, and spiritual experiences. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 66, 97-106.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1-26.
Baldwin, M. W. (1992). Relational schema and the processing of social information. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 461-484.
Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., Lee-Chai, A., Barbdollar, K., & Trotschel, R. (2001). The automated will. Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1014-1027.
Boski, P. (2009). Kulturowe ramy zachowań społecznych. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Christianson, S.-A. (1992). Emotional stress and eyewitness memory: A critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 112(2), 284-309.
Collins, A. M., & Quillian, M. R. (1969). Retrieval time from semantic memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 240-247.
Collins, A. M., & Quillian, M. R. (1972). How to make a language user. In E. Tulving, & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organization of memory (pp. 309-351). New York: Academic Press.
Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82, 407-428.
Constantine, R., McNally, R., & Horning, C. (2001). Snake fear and the pictorial emotional Stroop paradigm. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 757-764.
Craik, F. I. M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 268-294.
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.
Eliade, M. (1999). Sacrum i profanum. O istocie religijności. Warsaw: KR.
Emmons, R. A. (1999). Religion in the psychology of personality: An introduction. Journal of Personality, 67, 873-888.
Fallot, R. D. (1998). Spirituality and religion in recovery from mental illness. New Directions for Mental Health Services, 80, 1-105.
Ferguson, M. J., & Bargh, J. A. (2004). Liking is for doing: The effects of goal pursuit on automatic evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(5), 557-572.
Frankl, V. E. (1978). Nieuświadomiony Bóg. Warsaw: PAX.
Frankl, V. E. (2012). Bóg ukryty. W poszukiwaniu ostatecznego sensu. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Czarna Owca.
George, L. K., Larson, D. B., Koenig, H. G., & McCullough, M. E. (2000). Spirituality and health: What we know, what we need to know. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19(2), 102-116.
Gorbaniuk, O., Czarnecka, E., & Chmurzyńska, M. (2011). Taksonomia deskryptorów osobowych w języku polskim: Studium psycholeksykalne. Current Problems of Psychiatry, 12, 100-106.
Haidt, J. (2005/2007). Szczęście. Od mądrości starożytnych po koncepcje współczesne. Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Heszen-Niejodek, I., & Gruszczyńska, E. (2004). Wymiar duchowy człowieka, jego znaczenie w psychologii zdrowia i jego pomiar. Przegląd Psychologiczny, 47, 15-31.
Heszen-Niejodek, I. (2006). Teoria stresu psychologicznego i radzenia sobie. In J. Strelau (Ed.), Psychologia (vol. 3, pp. 465-492). Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Hill, P. C., Pargament, K. I., Hood, R. W., McCullough, M. E., Swyers, J. P., Larson, D. B., & Zinbauer, B. J. (2000). Conteptualizing religion and spirituality: Points of commonality, points of departure. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 30, 51-57.
Inquisit 3.0.4.0 [Software]. (2010). Seattle: Millisecond Software.
Joordens, S., & Besner, D. (1994). When banking on meaning is not (yet) money in the bank: Explorations in connectionist modeling. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 1051-1062.
Just, M. A., Keller, T. A., & Cynkar, J. A. (2008). A decrease in brain activation associated with driving when listening to someone speak. Brain Research, 1205, 70-80.
Klatzky, R. L., & Ryan, A. S. (1978). Category – structure effects in picture comparisons. Perception & Psychophysics, 23, 193-204.
Koenig, H. G., McCullough, M. E., & Larson, D. B. (2001). Handbook of religion and health. New York: Oxford University Press.
LaBar, K. S., & Phelps, E. A. (1998). Arousal-mediated memory consolidation: Role of the medial temporal lobe in humans. Psychological Science, 9, 490-493.
Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1999). International Affective Picture System (IAPS): Technical manual and affective ratings. University of Florida, Center for Research in Psychophysiology: Gainesville.
Lepore, L., & Brown, R. (2002). The role of awareness: Divergent automatic stereotype activation and implicit judgment correction. Social Cognition, 20, 321-351.
MacDonald, D. A. (2000). Spirituality: Description, measurement, and relation to the Five Factor model of personality. Journal of Personality, 68, 153-198.
Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., Jewell, T., Swank, A. B., Scott, E., Emery, E., & Rye, M. (1999). Marriage and the spiritual realm: The role of proximal and distal religious constructs in marital functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 321-338.
Martijn, C., Alberts, H. J. E. M., Merckelbach, H., Havermans, R., Huijts, A., & De Vries, N. K. (2007). Overcoming ego-depletion: The influence of exemplar priming on self-control performance. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 231-238.
Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
McIntosh, D. N. (1995). Religion as schema, with implications for the relation between religion and doping. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 5, 1-16.
Meier, B. P., Hauser, D. J., Robinson, M. D., Friesen, C. K., & Schjeldahl, K. (2007). What’s “up” with God? Vertical space as a representation of the divine. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 699-710.
Meyer, D. E., & Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1971). Facilitation in recognizing pairs of words: Evidence of dependence between retrieval operations. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 90, 227-234.
Miller, W. R., & Thoresen, C. E. (2003). Spirituality, religion and health: An emerging research field. American Psychologist, 58, 24-35.
Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1977). Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 519-533.
Moors, A., & De Houwer, J. (2006). Automaticity: A theoretical and conceptual analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 297-326.
Najder, K. (1997). Schematy poznawcze. In M. Materska, & T. Tyszka (Eds.), Psychologia i poznanie (pp. 38-60). Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Nęcka, E., Orzechowski, J., & Szymura, B. (2006). Psychologia poznawcza. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Ozorak, E. W. (1997). In the eye of the beholder: A social cognitive model of religious belief. In B. Spilka, & D. N. McIntosh (Eds.), The psychology of religion: Theoretical approaches (pp. 194-203). Boulder: Westview Press.
Pichon, I., Boccato, G., & Saroglou, V. (2007). Nonconscious influences of religion on prosociality: A priming study. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 1032-1045.
Piedmont, R. L. (1999). Does spirituality represents the sixth factor of personality? Spiritual transcendence and the Five-Factor Model. Journal of Personality, 67, 985-1013.
Piedmont, R. L. (2001). Spiritual transcendence and the scientific study of spirituality. Journal of Rehabilitation, 67, 4-14.
Piedmont, R. L. (2007). Cross-cultural generalizability of the Spiritual Transcendence Scale to the Philippines: Spirituality as a human universal. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 10, 89-107.
Piedmont, R. L. (2010). Assessment of Spirituality and Religious Sentiments (ASPIRES), Technical Manual (2nd ed.). Timonium, MD: Author.
Piedmont, R. L., Ciarrochi, J. W., Dy-Liacco, G. S., & Williams, J. E. G. (2009). The empirical and conceptual value of the Spiritual Transcendence and Religious Involvement scales for personality research. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 1, 162-179.
Piedmont, R. L., Kennedy, M. C., Sherman, M. F., Sherman, N. C., & Williams, J. E. G. (2008). A psychometric evaluation of the Assessment of Spirituality and Religious Sentiments (ASPIRES) Scale: Short form. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 19, 163-181.
Piedmont, R. L., & Leach, M. M. (2002). Cross-cultural generalizability of the Spiritual Transcendence Scale in India. American Behavioral Scientist, 45, 1886-1899.
Piedmont, R. L., Werdel, M. B., & Fernando, M. (2009). The utility of the Assessment of Spirituality and Religious Sentiments (ASPIRES) Scale with Christians and Buddhists in Sri Lanka. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 20, 131-143.
Popielski, K. (1994). Noetyczny wymiar osobowości. Psychologiczna analiza poczucia sensu życia. Lublin: Redakcja Wydawnictw KUL.
Popielski, K. (1999). Noopsychomatyka: Propozycja nowego podejścia diagnostyczno-terapeutycznego. Przegląd Psychologiczny, 42(4), 17-41.
Posner, M. I., & Snyder C. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive control. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition: The Loyola Symposium (pp. 55-85). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Randolph-Seng, B., & Nielsen, M. E. (2007). Honesty: One effect of primed religious representations. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 17, 303-315.
Różycka, J., & Skrzypińska, K. (2011). Perspektywa noetyczna w psychologicznym funkcjonowaniu człowieka. Roczniki Psychologiczne, 14(1), 101-121.
Shariff, A. F., & Norenzayan, A. (2007). God is watching you. Priming God concepts increases prosocial behavior in an anonymous economic game. Psychological Science, 18, 803-809.
Socha, P. (Ed.) (2000). Duchowy rozwój człowieka. Cracow: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.
Wachholtz, A. B., & Pargament, K. I. (2008). Migraines and meditation: Does spirituality matter? Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 31, 351-366.
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