Simulation of memory impairment: The nature, origin and detection with neuro-psychological tests
Keywords:
malingering; memory disorders; simulation
Abstract
The article presents a theoretical analysis of the phenomenon of simulation of memory impairment. According to the DSM-IV (APA, 1994) the essential features of simulation involve intentional or grossly exaggerated presentation of physical symptoms, motivated by external incentives such as avoiding military duty, avoiding work, obtaining financial compensation, evading criminal prosecution, or obtaining drugs. First, three main explanatory models of malingering are presented, then the issue of detection of memory impairment simulation is analyzed. The main research designs employed in the studies on simulation are discussed and detection strategies based on the analysis of the results on standard neuropsychological tests are presented.
References
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Barrash, J., Suhr, J., Manzel, K. (2004). Detecting poor effort and malingering with an expanded version of the Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLTX): Validation with clinical samples. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26, 125-140.
Beetar, J. T., Williams, J. M. (1995). Malingering response style on the Memory Assessment Scale and symptom validity test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 10, 57-72
Benton, A., Spreen, O. (1961). Bisual Memory Test: The simulation of mental incompetence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 79-83.
Bernard, L. C. (1990). Prospects for faking believable memory deficits on neuropsychological tests and the use of incentives in simulation research. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 12, 715-728.
Bilikiewicz, A. (1992). Zaburzenia reaktywne. W: A. Bilikiewicz, W. Strzyżewski (red.), Psychiatria. Podręcznik dla studentów medycyny (s. 152-156). Warszawa: Państwowy Zakład Wydawnictw Lekarskich.
Delis, D. C., Kramer, J. H., Kaplan, E., Ober, B. A. (1987). The California Verbal Learning Test: Research edition. New York: Psychological Corporation.
Frederick, R. I., Carter, M., Powel, J. (1995). Adapting symptom validity testing to evaluate suspicious complaints of amnesia in medicolegal evaluations. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 23, 231-237.
Golden, C. J., Purisch, A. D., Hammeke, T. A. (1995). Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery: Forms I & II manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
Haines, M. E., Norris, M. P.(1995). Detecting the malingering of cognitive deficits: An update. Neuropsychology Review, 5, 125-148.
Hall, S., Bernstein, R. A. (1991). Serial-position effects in paragraph recall following mild closed- -head injury. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 72, 1295-1298.
Hilsabeck, R. C., Gouvier, W. D.(2005). Detecting simulated memory impairment: Further validation of the Word Completion Memory Test (WCMT). Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20, 1025-1041
Hilsabeck, R. C., LeCompte, D. C. (1997). World Completion Memory Test (WCMT) (unpublished test).
Iverson, G. L., Binder, L. M. (2000). Detecting exaggeration and malingering in neuropsychological assessment. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 15, 829-858.
Iverson, G. L., Franzen, M. D. (1996). Using multiple objective procedures to detect simulated malingering. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 18, 38-51.
Lezak, M. D. (1995). Neuropsychological assessment (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
McGuire, B. E., Shores, E. A. (1998). Malingering of memory impairment on the Colorado Priming Test. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 99-102.
McKinzey, R. K., Podd, M. H., Krehbiel, M. A., Raven, J. (1999). Detection of malingering on Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices: A cross-validation. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 435-439.
Miller, H. (1961). Accident neurosis. British Medical Journal, 1, 919-925.
Mittenberg, W., Azrin, R., Millsaps, C., Heilbronner, R. (1993). Identification of malingered head injury on the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised. Psychological Assessment, 5, 34-40.
Nies, K. J., Sweet, J. J. (1994). Neuropsychological Assessment and Malingering: A critical review a past and present strategies. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 6, 501-552.
Pankratz, L., Binder, L. M. (1997). Malingering on intellectual and neuropsychological measures. W: R. Rogers (red.), Clinical assessment of malingering and deception (2nd ed.) (s. 223-239). New York: The Guilford Press.
Pankratz, L., Fausti, S., Peed, S. (1975). A force-choice technique to evaluate deafness in the hysterical or malingering patient. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 421-422.
Rey, A. (1964). L’examen clinique en psychologie. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Rogers, R. (1990). Development of a new classificatory model of malingering. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law, 18, 323-333.
Rogers, R. (1997). Clinical assessment of malingering and deception. 2nd ed. New York: The Guilford Press.
Rogers, R., Bagby, R. M., Dickens, S. E. (1992). Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS) and professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Rogers, R., Bender, S. (2003). Evaluation of malingering and deception. W: A. M. Goldstein (red.), Handbook of psychology. Vol. 11: Forensic psychology (s. 109-129). New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Rogers, R., Cavanaugh, J. L. (1983). “Nothing but the truth”: A reexamination of malingering. Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 11, 443-460.
Rogers, R., Harrell, E. H., Liff, C. D. (1993). Feigning neuropsychological impairment: A critical review of methodological and clinical considerations. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 255-274.
Rosenfeld, B., Sands, S. A., van Gorp, W. G. (2000). Have we forgotten the base rate problem? Methodological issues in detection of distortion. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15, 349-359.
Strauss, E., Spellacy, F., Hunetr, M., Berry, T. (1994). Assessing believable deficits on measures of attention and information processing capacity. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 9, 483-490.
Suhr, J. A. (2002). Malingering, coaching, and serial position effects. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15, 415-424
Suhr, J. A., Tranel, D., Wefel, J., Barrash, J. (1997). Memory performance after head injury: Contributions of malingering, litigation status, psychological factors, and medication use. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 19, 495-502.
Warrington, E. K. (1984). Recognition Memory Test: Manual. Berkshire, UK: NFER-Nelson.
Wciórka, J. (2002). Psychopatologia. W: A. Bilikiewicz, S. Pużyński, J. Robakowski, J. Wciórka (red.), Psychiatria (t. I, s. 321-425). Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Medyczne Urban & Partner.
Wechsler, D. (1987). Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Third Edition. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Williams, J. M. (1997). The malingering of memory disorder. W: C. R. Reynolds (red.), Detection of Malingering During Head Injury Litigation (s. 105-133). New York, NY: Springer.
World Health Organization (2004). International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Revision (2nd ed.). Genewa: World Health Organization.
Barrash, J., Suhr, J., Manzel, K. (2004). Detecting poor effort and malingering with an expanded version of the Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLTX): Validation with clinical samples. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26, 125-140.
Beetar, J. T., Williams, J. M. (1995). Malingering response style on the Memory Assessment Scale and symptom validity test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 10, 57-72
Benton, A., Spreen, O. (1961). Bisual Memory Test: The simulation of mental incompetence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 79-83.
Bernard, L. C. (1990). Prospects for faking believable memory deficits on neuropsychological tests and the use of incentives in simulation research. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 12, 715-728.
Bilikiewicz, A. (1992). Zaburzenia reaktywne. W: A. Bilikiewicz, W. Strzyżewski (red.), Psychiatria. Podręcznik dla studentów medycyny (s. 152-156). Warszawa: Państwowy Zakład Wydawnictw Lekarskich.
Delis, D. C., Kramer, J. H., Kaplan, E., Ober, B. A. (1987). The California Verbal Learning Test: Research edition. New York: Psychological Corporation.
Frederick, R. I., Carter, M., Powel, J. (1995). Adapting symptom validity testing to evaluate suspicious complaints of amnesia in medicolegal evaluations. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 23, 231-237.
Golden, C. J., Purisch, A. D., Hammeke, T. A. (1995). Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery: Forms I & II manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
Haines, M. E., Norris, M. P.(1995). Detecting the malingering of cognitive deficits: An update. Neuropsychology Review, 5, 125-148.
Hall, S., Bernstein, R. A. (1991). Serial-position effects in paragraph recall following mild closed- -head injury. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 72, 1295-1298.
Hilsabeck, R. C., Gouvier, W. D.(2005). Detecting simulated memory impairment: Further validation of the Word Completion Memory Test (WCMT). Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20, 1025-1041
Hilsabeck, R. C., LeCompte, D. C. (1997). World Completion Memory Test (WCMT) (unpublished test).
Iverson, G. L., Binder, L. M. (2000). Detecting exaggeration and malingering in neuropsychological assessment. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 15, 829-858.
Iverson, G. L., Franzen, M. D. (1996). Using multiple objective procedures to detect simulated malingering. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 18, 38-51.
Lezak, M. D. (1995). Neuropsychological assessment (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
McGuire, B. E., Shores, E. A. (1998). Malingering of memory impairment on the Colorado Priming Test. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 99-102.
McKinzey, R. K., Podd, M. H., Krehbiel, M. A., Raven, J. (1999). Detection of malingering on Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices: A cross-validation. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 435-439.
Miller, H. (1961). Accident neurosis. British Medical Journal, 1, 919-925.
Mittenberg, W., Azrin, R., Millsaps, C., Heilbronner, R. (1993). Identification of malingered head injury on the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised. Psychological Assessment, 5, 34-40.
Nies, K. J., Sweet, J. J. (1994). Neuropsychological Assessment and Malingering: A critical review a past and present strategies. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 6, 501-552.
Pankratz, L., Binder, L. M. (1997). Malingering on intellectual and neuropsychological measures. W: R. Rogers (red.), Clinical assessment of malingering and deception (2nd ed.) (s. 223-239). New York: The Guilford Press.
Pankratz, L., Fausti, S., Peed, S. (1975). A force-choice technique to evaluate deafness in the hysterical or malingering patient. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 421-422.
Rey, A. (1964). L’examen clinique en psychologie. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Rogers, R. (1990). Development of a new classificatory model of malingering. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law, 18, 323-333.
Rogers, R. (1997). Clinical assessment of malingering and deception. 2nd ed. New York: The Guilford Press.
Rogers, R., Bagby, R. M., Dickens, S. E. (1992). Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS) and professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Rogers, R., Bender, S. (2003). Evaluation of malingering and deception. W: A. M. Goldstein (red.), Handbook of psychology. Vol. 11: Forensic psychology (s. 109-129). New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Rogers, R., Cavanaugh, J. L. (1983). “Nothing but the truth”: A reexamination of malingering. Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 11, 443-460.
Rogers, R., Harrell, E. H., Liff, C. D. (1993). Feigning neuropsychological impairment: A critical review of methodological and clinical considerations. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 255-274.
Rosenfeld, B., Sands, S. A., van Gorp, W. G. (2000). Have we forgotten the base rate problem? Methodological issues in detection of distortion. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15, 349-359.
Strauss, E., Spellacy, F., Hunetr, M., Berry, T. (1994). Assessing believable deficits on measures of attention and information processing capacity. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 9, 483-490.
Suhr, J. A. (2002). Malingering, coaching, and serial position effects. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15, 415-424
Suhr, J. A., Tranel, D., Wefel, J., Barrash, J. (1997). Memory performance after head injury: Contributions of malingering, litigation status, psychological factors, and medication use. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 19, 495-502.
Warrington, E. K. (1984). Recognition Memory Test: Manual. Berkshire, UK: NFER-Nelson.
Wciórka, J. (2002). Psychopatologia. W: A. Bilikiewicz, S. Pużyński, J. Robakowski, J. Wciórka (red.), Psychiatria (t. I, s. 321-425). Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Medyczne Urban & Partner.
Wechsler, D. (1987). Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Third Edition. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Williams, J. M. (1997). The malingering of memory disorder. W: C. R. Reynolds (red.), Detection of Malingering During Head Injury Litigation (s. 105-133). New York, NY: Springer.
World Health Organization (2004). International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Revision (2nd ed.). Genewa: World Health Organization.
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